Community-based Conservation Initiatives Research Articles

Participation Strategies and Ethical Considerations in NGO Led Community-Based Conservation Initiatives

AbstractThis study examines the participation strategies of an environmental non-governmental organization (NGO) in community-based conservation (CBC) initiatives in the developing country context of Pakistan. We use local Pakistani concepts and terms to interpret and narrate our study. Drawing on the micro-mobilization literature, our analysis embeds a situated analysis of the ‘biradari’ (kinship) structures that pervade Pakistani social and cultural milieu. We shed light on the importance of various gatekeepers in providing access and ongoing support for CBC initiatives, suggesting NGOs must navigate complex cultural and social structures to manage participation in developing country contexts. Here our findings point to the importance of local knowledge not just in articulating community needs but also in articulating participation strategies. Furthermore, even though ‘elite’ structures have the potential to jeopardize equitable participation and project long-term sustainability, our analysis suggests interacting and gaining ‘bharosa’ (trust) of communities’ via these structures is critical to participation. While previous research has called into doubt the efficacy of CBC in advancing conservation, we suggest that frequent and culturally atoned engagement is a must for environmental NGOs working in socially entrenched developing nations. Our research brings to light the complex ethical terrain navigated by environmental NGOs in CBC projects, illuminating the inherent potential for both empowering and subjugating outcomes.

Volunteer commitment and longevity in community-based conservation in Aotearoa New Zealand

ABSTRACT Committed volunteers are the driving force of successful community-based conservation initiatives. However, many groups struggle with recruitment and retention of volunteers. This research adds to the limited knowledge on what motivates community-based conservation volunteers to become committed to a conservation initiative, by carrying out a case study on community-based conservation volunteers in the Manawatū region of New Zealand. Twenty-one semi-structured interviews with key members of community-conservation groups were carried out along with a survey distributed to all local community-based conservation groups. This research showed that the key long-term motivation factors are ‘to care for the environment’, ‘to help the local community’, ‘to be outside, or amongst nature’ and to have ‘a connection to nature’. There was minimal change between long-term and initial motivation factors, with only three motivation factors increasing in importance; ‘to socialise with others’, ‘for stress relief or escape’ and ‘to help the local community', and one decreasing in importance; ‘to learn new skills and knowledge’. In order to enhance commitment of volunteers there is a need to take motivation factors into account within project design and management, allow time for socialisation, and provide ongoing training, education and recognition.

Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants used by the local people in Habru District, North Wollo Zone, Ethiopia

BackgroundEthiopia is a country located in the Horn of Africa, which combines richness in plant resources and cultures of human plant use. The people of Habru District of North Wollo Zone (Amhara Region, Ethiopia) have a long history of use of plant resources for various purposes including in traditional herbal remedy preparation and use. However, the district has not been adequately studied for its ethnobotanical resources and the associated knowledge. This study focused on human medicinal plants and their traditional uses in Habru District. The objective of the study was to document and analyze the plant species used by the local communities to treat human ailments along with the associated traditional knowledge and practices.MethodologyThe study was carried out in Habru District from June 2021 to December 2022. Ethnobotanical data were collected using semi-structured interviews, guided field walks, 13 focus group discussions (one at the district level and 12 at the kebele/subdistrict level) and market surveys. A total of 388 informants (250 males and 138 females) were selected from all 13 kebeles within Habru District using systematic random sampling, and 42 key informants were purposively selected. Descriptive statistics, preference ranking, direct matrix ranking, informant consensus factor and fidelity level were applied for data analysis.ResultsThe results provide insights into the medicinal plant diversity within Habru District, where 134 plant species in 110 genera and 54 families were documented, including 2 endemics, highlighting the district’s significance in biodiversity conservation and healthcare delivery. Disease prevalence analysis showed that gastrointestinal and parasitic ailments (ICF = 0.85), febrile diseases (ICF = 0.84), and culture-related conditions exhibit high informant consensus factors. Remedy preparation involves various plant parts, predominantly leaves (47.3%), followed by roots (22.1%), fruits (7.0%), and seeds (5.8%). Freshly harvested plant parts were frequently used (58.2%), while 24.7% involved both dried and fresh parts. Oral application (47.3%) and topical use (31.8%) are the major routes of remedy administration. The marketability of medicinal plants was evident, with 16.4% of the species reported as marketable, including Terminalia brownii Fresen. Myrtus communis L., Ruta chalepensis L., Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata (Wall. & G.Don) Cif., Allium sativum L. and Capsicum annuum L. Multipurpose plants such as Solanum somalense Franchet. (91.3% FL), Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. ex. Benth. (88.9% FL), and Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. (85.7% FL) exhibited notable healing potentials.ConclusionThe current study underscores the intricate relationship between the local community and medicinal plants, emphasizing the importance of biodiversity conservation and health care and acknowledging the dynamic interplay between cultural heritage and ecosystem health. The results contribute to the development of sustainable conservation strategies, healthcare practices and the preservation of traditional knowledge, and highlight the interdependence of human societies and their natural environments. Community-based conservation initiatives with active participation of local communities are desirable for the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plant species and their habitats. Raising public awareness about the sustainable harvesting and utilization of marketed medicinal plants (e.g., Terminalia brownii Fresen.) that are under threat is also important to ensure their availability for future generations and contribution to socioeconomic development.

Review of Community-Based Conservation Initiatives for Protecting a Primary Atlantic Forest Remnant: A Case Study

Effective forest conservation should go hand in hand with collaboration of the surrounding local communities. Bringing advancement and relief to marginalized communities is pivotal for conservation initiatives, with the objective of cultivating a sustainable ecosystem while protecting indigenous biodiversity. The linchpin for developing successful partnerships begins with fostering a shared understanding of the intricate relationship between humanity and the natural environment. This awareness can be nurtured by interactive education and tangible outcomes that illuminate the profound long-term benefits of conscientious environmental stewardship. Therefore, an emphasis on community-driven conservation and environmental education becomes imperative, serving as a conduit for disseminating crucial information, fostering practical knowledge, and nurturing the attitudes and skills essential in the quest for environmental protection and sustainable development. Education, in this context, operates as a reciprocal process, demanding that educators glean insights from the local populace to effectively tailor strategies that elevate and empower them toward sustainable advancement. This dynamic interaction is where capacity development (CD) becomes indispensable. This paper delves into the unfolding of a series of conservation endeavors, initially driven by Anita Studer’s commitment to preserving a fragment of the primary Atlantic Forest in northeastern Brazil. Evolving into a four-decade educational journey, the actions taken showcase enduring ripple effects across 14 states in Brazil, presenting a comprehensive survey of applied techniques in this unique context. The resources required to achieve collective conservation goals witness a continual upswing, a trend expounded in this paper. Hence, we have chronicled the history, methodology, and projects that transpired in response to the ever-evolving community needs. We will also look at the results and discuss the advancement that ensues following the CBD targets and goals presented at the 2022 UN Biodiversity Conference.

Unveiling poaching patterns and threat sources for informed conservation in southeast Angola

Poaching poses a significant threat to wildlife and ecosystems in southeast Angola, yet comprehensive studies to inform effective conservation strategies have been lacking. This novel study systematically assesses the spatial distribution and influencing factors of poaching activities in the region. Utilizing data from extensive patrolling efforts and predictive modeling, the hotspots and risk zones for wire-snares, gin traps, elephant poaching, and poaching camps are delineated. Our findings reveal distinctive socio-political and geo-ecological patterns governing each type of illegal activity. Wire-snares and gin traps display clear socio-political correlates, with proximity to towns and villages influencing their prevalence. These findings advocate for strategic placement of patrol stations and underscore the need for expanded law enforcement efforts to mitigate these threats. Conversely, elephant poaching for ivory exhibits transboundary influences, with heightened risk zones along international borders. This highlights the urgency of collaborative, transboundary management strategies to counteract external drivers of elephant poaching. Geo-ecologically, closed habitats dominated by woody vegetation, such as shrublands and closed woodlands, are favored for wire-snares and gin traps, likely due to reduced detection risk. Riparian habitats emerge as high-risk areas for elephant poaching and fishing camps, highlighting their importance for targeted conservation interventions. The fine-scale spatial analysis guides resource allocation and law enforcement strategies, while the identification of distinct threat sources informs proactive measures. To curb local demand-driven poaching, community-based conservation and alternative livelihood initiatives are recommended.

Turtle Conservation and Education Center (TCEC) as a Corporate Social Responsibility Program in Serangan Village

One of PT Pertamina Patra Niaga Fuel Terminal Sanggaran Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) activities, community-based turtle conservation is a response to phenomena that occur in its operational Ring I area. It is also sometimes referred to as the Turtle Conservation and Education Center. A community-based conservation initiative was established on Serangan Island in response to the illegal and endangering use of sea turtles. The goal of this study is to learn how the TCEC program is being implemented on Serangan Island in an effort to protect sea turtles. The qualitative data-gathering procedures used in this research method include documentation, literature reviews, and interviews. The research results showed that TCEC is believed to be capable of preserving the turtle population on Serangan Island through efforts to save turtles and relocate nests, perform surgical procedures on turtles, rehabilitate turtles, release hatchlings, and educate and socialize turtles for visitors. The conservation program at TCEC has both direct and indirect effects on society, the economy, and the environment. In addition to advancing inclusive and sustainable economic growth, productive and comprehensive job opportunities, and decent work for the residents of Serangan Traditional Village, the Turtle Conservation and Education Center (TCEC) additionally contributes to goal 15 of the Land Ecosystem by preserving three species of endangered turtles and enhancing their numbers.

Breaking Dawn: Factors influencing mammalian habitat usage in western Assam following socio-political instability

The impacts of conflict on nature are devastatingly adverse but differ widely in different socio-economic-political regimes. Armed conflict often facilitates illegal plunder and unsustainable use of natural resources. We studied the response of mammals in Ripu (605.27 sq.km, westernmost part of Manas Tiger Reserve) Reserved Forest (RF) in Assam, India that suffers prolonged anthropogenic pressures due to armed conflict instigated by social unrest. We used standard single-season occupancy models using sign survey to assess factors affecting the space use of mammals. Our study revealed that Ripu RF has a high proportion of area occupied by prey species of large carnivores. Asian elephant, barking deer, and wild pig occupied most of the habitat, whereas gaur, sambar and spotted deer restricted themselves to selected patches. The probability of a site being occupied by the majority of ungulates declines with an increase in anthropogenic activities, including distance to human settlement (measure of prolonged disturbance) and an increase in the proportion of secondary degraded forest. Common leopard was found to be positively associated with prey occupancy and increase in semievergreen and moist-mixed deciduous forest. Our ground efforts to strengthen community patrolling and operational execution of various alternative livelihoods has helped to improve the economic condition of patrolling staff. Strategic implementation of law enforcement could support dispersal of tigers from Phibsoo Wildlife Sanctuary (Bhutan), potentially linked to the larger tiger and elephant landscape far west (Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal) in the Terai region of India. Various community-based conservation initiatives and strategies with sustained support from various agencies, including national, international, and local bodies, is required to restore this critical habitat.

Innovative solutions for the conservation of natural ecosystems

The article discusses the importance of involving local people in conservation activities. Traditional knowledge and practices can play an important role in the sustainable management of natural resources. By involving local people in decision-making and incentivizing them to conserve nature, a sense of ownership and responsibility for protecting ecosystems can be created. This approach has been particularly successful in community-based conservation initiatives, where local people are actively involved in monitoring and managing protected areas. Another innovative solution is the concept of ecological corridors. These are strips of land that connect fragmented habitats, allowing for the movement of species and the exchange of genetic material. By creating these corridors, conservationists can help prevent isolation of populations and increase their resilience to environmental changes. As the world grapples with the urgent need to protect and restore natural ecosystems, innovative solutions are emerging to address this global challenge. By adopting innovative approaches, we can work towards a more sustainable and resilient future in which natural ecosystems thrive and continue to provide essential services for future generations.

Human-elephant coexistence through aligning conservation with societal aspirations

Nature’s contributions to people diminish when people are alienated from nature. We developed a framework to help support more sustainable people-nature interactions in the context of the conservation of African elephants ( Loxodonta africana and L . cyclotis ). Elephants are iconic, and ecologically, culturally, and socio-economically important, but are also competing and in conflict with people who still benefit little from elephant conservation. We demonstrate how this framework can be used to address challenges over elephant conservation and management, and help achieve human-elephant coexistence, by (i) balancing integrity of nature with social cohesion and human wellbeing, and (ii) moderating the use of nature through widely accepted values, aspirations, and rights. The framework provides mechanisms for policymakers and managers to improve existing community-based conservation initiatives, promotes equitable policies for elephant conservation, and can be applied to the conservation of other iconic species that pose management challenges.

Arapaima co-management through the lens of the Protected Areas Assets Framework

An extensive network of Protected Areas (PA) has been established across the Brazilian Amazon, but this PA system still suffers from a shortage of funding resources and environmental managers. New conservation strategies that successfully align social aspirations with biodiversity conservation are therefore imperative. Although approaches exist that demonstrate the value of biodiversity conservation for society and the local/national economy, these do not always manage to capture intrinsic values or local perspectives on natural resource conservation, and this can generate limitations in the use of these approaches as conservation tools. Here, we assessed the case of arapaima (Arapaima spp.) co-management, a well-consolidated community-based conservation initiative, through the lens of the Protected Areas Asset Framework (PAAF) to investigate the material and immaterial value of PA assets. Arapaima was clearly recognized as a key biophysical natural asset by local communities, with a significant role in terms of food, cultural, economic and conservation importance, in addition to its status as an iconic and emblematic species. This study reinforces the potential of the PAAF to identify the diverse range of values associated with PAs. Our results also encourage wider support to strengthen collaborative sustainable natural resource management programmes such as arapaima co-management, which is achieving remarkable social and ecological outcomes in rural Amazonia.

A Community-Based Conservation Initiative for Wolves in the Ladakh Trans-Himalaya, India

We describe a pilot community-based conservation initiative for wolves Canis lupus that involves (i) voluntary deactivation of traditional trapping pits called Shandong, (ii) commitment to wildlife conservation by the local community, and (iii) collaborative construction and consecration of a Stupa (Buddhist shrine) in the vicinity of the Shandong as a symbol of conservation and repentance for past hunting. People and wolves have a complex relationship, in part shaped by predation on livestock, which can have severe impacts on livelihoods in pastoral societies. Consequently, wolf conservation often evokes strong and polarizing reactions. To control wolf populations, livestock herders across the Trans- Himalayan and Tibetan regions use different types of traps. Shandong is a relatively large, widely used traditional trapping pit with inverted funnel-shaped stone walls, usually built near villages or herder camps. Typically, a live domestic animal is placed in the pit to attract the wolves. Once the wolves jump into the pit, the funnel shaped walls prevent them from escaping, and trapped wolves are usually stoned to death. In an extensive survey covering over 25,000 sq. km, we enumerated 94 Shandong in 58 of the 64 surveyed villages in Ladakh between June 2019 and March 2020. Thirty of these had been used to kill wolves within the past 10 years, while 7 had been destroyed. Shandong that were not in use were of poorer condition. Since 2017, we have worked with community members, local monks, and the region’s religious leaders to support the neutralization of the Shandong while preserving their structure, and assisted the communities to build Stupas and to consecrate them. Our pilot efforts with three communities appear to generate pride locally, and hold promise for promoting wolf conservation in Ladakh and in large parts of Trans-Himalayan and Tibetan regions that share similar cultural settings.

Distribution and habitat preferences of the Chinese Pangolin Manis pentadactyla (Mammalia: Manidae) in the mid-hills of Nepal

The Chinese Pangolin is a ‘Critically Endangered’ species, which is estimated to have declined by over 90% in the last 21 years due to increased anthropogenic activities on the species and its habitat. Only a few pieces of research on the Chinese Pangolin have been done throughout Nepal; there is little information among the mammal species of Nepal, especially on distribution and habitat preference. This study was set to assess the distribution and habitat preferences of the Chinese Pangolin in Panauti municipality, central Nepal. We identified the most preferred habitat of the Chinese Pangolin using different covariates. Its preferred habitat was found ranging 1,450–1,600 m of elevation within a moderate slope of 5–25° steepness, forested areas in west-facing slopes. The maximum number of burrows of the species were found to be distributed in open canopy (0–50 % coverage). The increase anthropogenic activities in the agricultural land and deforestation in forested land has negatively impacted the occurrence of the Chinese Pangolin. We recommend that the community-based conservation initiatives like community forestry programs should be robustly implemented in the study area for better conservation of species and habitat in the coming years.

Classed conservation: Socio-economic drivers of participation in marine resource management

Conservation organizations often adopt the normative value of “whole community” participation, predicated on the idea that broad community involvement across categories of identity and social stratification will lead to more successful project outcomes. Analysis of intra-community social stratifications in relation to participation in conservation is important to the pursuit of environmental justice as well as improved efficacy of a given conservation intervention. While a large body of literature broadly examines intra and inter-community dynamics in relation to community-based conservation, few have specifically quantified how wealth influences one’s participation in community-based conservation initiatives, especially in the marine realm. To address these questions, we interviewed people living near marine conservation initiatives in Madagascar. Using a principle component analysis, we created an asset-based wealth index and showed that both knowledge of and participation in marine conservation was positively correlated with wealth. Specifically, three of the four participation categories were statistically correlated with wealth, including involvement in any element of the conservation project, involvement in decision-making, and in enforcement. However, wealth was not significantly correlated with participation in monitoring. Ultimately our research highlights the importance of understanding underlying drivers of participation in community-based conservation. If the poorest in a community are underrepresented in local participation, the conservation initiative will not only be unjust, but will also likely be less effective.

Assessing Indicators and Limitations of Food Security Objectives in Coral Reef Restoration

Coral reef restoration is often presented as a marine conservation solution that provides 'win-win' outcomes. However, most studies on reef restoration have focused on the biological success, while little is known about whether social objectives are ever achieved. This study investigates a reef restoration initiative in the Spermonde archipelago, Indonesia, where food security was initially presented as an intended social outcome. We utilised an ethnographic mixed-methods approach to investigate: 1) perceived sociocultural benefits of coral restoration to the local community; 2) impacts of reef restoration on local food security; and 3) local sociocultural barriers and limitations of reef restoration as a mechanism for improving food security. We found fish contributed to food security primarily as an income source to purchase food. Local people mainly valued nearby reefs for storm protection. Furthermore, most fishers are organised through patron-client systems that target pelagic species; therefore they currently have minimal dependency on adjacent reefs. However, fishing restrictions linked to the restoration programme still negatively impacted both pelagic fishers and a small population of reef-based fishers—indirectly by damaging reciprocal fishing relations with neighbouring islands and directly by limiting access to local reefs. Complex social and trade networks associated with patron-client networks present potential barriers for transitioning to reef-based fisheries and eradicating the use of destructive fishing gear, therefore limiting access to potential food security benefits generated from reef restoration. These findings show that the relationship between coral restoration and food security is tenuous and cannot be assumed. These findings also demonstrate that social dynamics surrounding community-based conservation initiatives are complex and context-dependent, and such details must be considered when designing marine habitat restoration initiatives.

Effectiveness of non-lethal predator deterrents to reduce livestock losses to leopard attacks within a multiple-use landscape of the Himalayan region.

Lethal measures are widely adopted by local communities and governments to manage human-wildlife conflicts. Such measures lead to large scale decline of carnivore populations globally with trophic cascades on ecosystems and questionable impacts on human-wildlife conflicts. Mitigating human-carnivore conflicts through non-lethal measures will protect endangered predators and secure livelihoods. However, information on the effectiveness of such measures are extremely limited and hence cannot be applied in developing scientific evidence. Further to develop human-carnivore coexistence models, it is important for local community members, biologists and wildlife managers to actively participate in conservation programs. We evaluated the response of a non-lethal visual deterrent (i.e. fox lights) to deter leopard attacks on livestock within a multiple-use landscape of western Himalaya through community engagement. We monitored 16 experimental sites and 17 control sites within 27 villages and recorded data on livestock depredation by leopards between April 2018 to April 2019. A multivariate analysis was conducted to determine the influence of landscape predictors and animal husbandry practices on livestock depredation by leopards within the vicinity of human settlements. We found that visual deterrents discouraged common leopards to predate on livestock (cows and goats). We also demonstrated that community based conservation initiatives are successful in mitigating human-carnivore conflicts within large semi-natural landscapes. We suggest developing site specific coexistence strategies and adopting non-lethal measures to safeguard carnivores, livestock and humans within shared landscapes.

Conditions for Success in a Community Based Conservation Initiative: An Analysis of Triggering Moments and Catalytic Elements in Nuha

What accounts for a successful community-based conservation (CBC) initiative? A bulk of studies has answered the question by identifying the principles as well as underlying relations that make up successful cases. However, rarely do they extend to examine the basic elements (or ingredients) that contribute to a successful case. Using the analytic framing of triggering moments and catalytic elements, this study describes the key factors that contributed to ongoing successes in achieving the outputs and goals of CBC. A recent CBC project in the Lake Malili Complex of South Sulawesi is examined as a case study to test the framework. The CBC initiative was carried out by a local NGO and university. The case village (Nuha) is chosen for its ability to continue implementing programmatic objectives according to project reports. In-depth interviews, a close review of grey literature about the project, as well as field observations in Nuha and surrounding villages provide the data that forms the basis of the analysis about the factors contributing to Nuha success. Findings show that the framework of triggering moments and catalytic elements can help to show the key factors of crises and windows of opportunity that contribute strongly to stimulating community responses to a CBC initiative. Furthermore, although not all catalytic elements were present, certain identified factors – participation, commitment of key actors, funding, capacity building, partnership with supportive organizations and governments, and leadership – were strong enough to stimulate effective implementation of the CBC initiative. Nevertheless, the analytic framework of triggering moments and catalytic elements is less capable of provide the context for why the catalytic elements were present prior to the introduction of the CBC initiative.

Impact of Tanzania’s Wildlife Management Areas on household wealth

Large-scale area-based conservation measures affect millions of people globally. Understanding their social impacts is necessary to improve effectiveness and minimize negative consequences. However, quantifying the impacts of conservation measures that affect large geographic areas and diverse peoples is expensive and methodologically challenging, particularly because such evaluations should capture locally defined conceptions of well-being while permitting policy-relevant comparisons. Here, we measure the impact of Tanzania’s Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs), a national community-based conservation and poverty reduction initiative. We use a novel, cost-effective impact evaluation method based on participatory wealth ranking and Bayesian multilevel modelling. We find that from 2007 to 2015 the impacts of WMAs on wealth were small and variable, with no clear evidence of widespread poverty reduction. Accompanying qualitative data suggest that apparently positive effects in one WMA cannot be directly attributed to WMA activities. Our results suggest that current WMA policy needs to be revisited if it is to promote positive local development. A novel method to assess the impacts of large-scale conservation interventions on household wealth while capturing local heterogeneity reveals small and variable impacts of a nationwide conservation programme in Tanzania.

Bird conservation from obscurity to popularity: a case study of two bird species from Northeast India

This paper discusses how competing value systems of different interest groups, help the obscure and lesser known species to become a part of a global conservation project. We analyse two community-based conservation initiatives where two littleknown bird species Bugun liocichla (Liocichla bugunorum) and Amur falcon (Falco amurensis) have transformed the state of the landscape with a series of initiatives by Governments, NGOs and scientists. Bugun liocichla is found in only one location of Arunachal Pradesh and its population is currently as low as 14 individuals. Amur falcon is a migratory bird of prey that visits Nagaland in millions to roost for 2 months. This paper particularly, focuses on how the idea of conservation NGOs is introduced at the community level and how particular bird species gain popularity, locally and internationally. Using the notion of value, we examine how and why species gain specific value/s when the conservation projects are designed and implemented in community-based conservation projects in Northeast India. Based on ethnographic research, we have used semi-structured interviews and participant observation to gather information from key informants. We found that these bird species attain specific cultural, commercial and conservation values depending on various ecological, economic and social factors. In the process of conservation, the birds also become ‘development’ icons for the landscape. We argue that the two species have attained a ‘universal value’ attuned to the philosophies of global capitalist market and global conservation.

The future of walnut–fruit forests in Kyrgyzstan and the status of the iconic Endangered apple Malus niedzwetzkyana

AbstractForest ecosystems are rich in biodiversity and provide valuable ecosystem services, but are declining worldwide. Malus niedzwetzkyana, an Endangered wild relative of domesticated apples, is an important component of the walnut–fruit forests of Central Asia. Its iconic pink blossom and genetic properties give it special cultural and scientific significance, but livestock grazing and firewood collection threaten its survival. The conservation of the species and its native forest ecosystem is critical and urgent. This study provides information on the ecology and population of M. niedzwetzkyana and the threats affecting its habitat, improving our understanding of its distribution and proposing measures to reduce threats. We collected ecological data and assessed population structure and threats at four forest sites in southern Kyrgyzstan. We mapped 149 individuals, creating the largest known dataset for this species. We developed species distribution models for M. niedzwetzkyana to identify climatically suitable regions and potential areas for restoration. Sary-Chelek Biosphere Reserve contained the largest expanse of pristine forest and the most stable M. niedzwetzkyana population, followed by Kara-Alma Forestry Unit. Forests in the Gava Forestry Unit and Dashman Reserve were most extensively damaged by humans and livestock. The wild apple's favoured habitat was south-west facing slopes with a gradient < 30° and a relatively open canopy. Overall, the study population was vulnerable to extinction with limited regeneration potential. We recommend short-term population enhancement through planting projects and increased protection of individuals in pristine sites. Community-based conservation initiatives should be prioritized in extensively damaged sites, and larger-scale reforestation of these forests needs to be considered.

Standardizing the evaluation of community-based conservation success.

Community-based conservation, which strives to simultaneously improve nature conservation and alleviate poverty, must provide biological and socioeconomic benefits that are linked through effective resilience mechanisms. To date, few community-based conservation initiatives have published comprehensive assessments that track performance in these elements of success. With 45% of the world's protected areas in comanagement with local communities, standardized measures to effectively evaluate the dual goals of community-based conservation are needed. We here introduce SPECCS, a user-friendly Standardized Protocol for Evaluating Community Conservation Success that incorporates an appraisal of data quality to responsibly assess progress over time or to compare effectiveness among different initiatives. We illustrate SPECCS's use by evaluating the Wechiau Community Hippo Sanctuary (WCHS) of northern Ghana 10 and 20yr after its inception. The WCHS has the dual objective of protecting one of Ghana's few remaining hippopotamus populations while alleviating poverty in the surrounding communities through the creation of economic opportunity and infrastructure development. Results suggest stable project performance in the 10-yr (76%) and 20-yr (76%) evaluation, with an improvement in evaluation quality from 30% to 34%. The project is currently stronger in socioeconomic (performance 86%; quality 30%) than biological (60%; 32%) outcomes and in benefits (83%, 42%) than resilience (63%, 21%). Biological resilience is challenged by poor connectivity and limited project control over threats, whereas socioeconomic resilience is affected by a decision balance that continues to favor external stakeholders. SPECCS helps pinpoint strengths and weaknesses for timely adaptive management, strategic investments, and evidence-based recognition of community-based conservation successes.