Community-based Conservation Research Articles

Conservation communautaire et changement de statuts du bonobo dans le Territoire de Bolobo

Alors que la place des populations locales dans la conservation de l’environnement est largement etudiee et discutee, en pratique l’expression « conservation-communautaire » regroupe une multitude de projets allant d’une dynamique top-down institutionnalisee a une dynamique bottom-up fonctionnant par essai-erreur. Avec la conservation, de nouveaux acteurs apparaissent, des messages diffusent, chacun s’appropriant les idees circulantes a sa maniere. Dans le cadre d’une etude interdisciplinaire centree sur les interactions entre bonobos, humains et habitats dans un espace de conservation communautaire initiee par l’ONG locale Mbou-Mon-Tour dans le Territoire de Bolobo (Republique Democratique du Congo), nous nous sommes interesses aux evolutions du statut du bonobo, animal de normes (au sens de regles edictees par des autorites publiques), animal support de developpement economique et animal objet de savoirs locaux et scientifiques. Alors que le respect de l’interdit alimentaire local s’amenuisait, le projet de conservation communautaire a renforce cet interdit en associant a la coutume locale – le bonobo est un humain ayant fui en foret en raison de dettes impayees, il est porteur de malchance – les lois nationales et internationales et en creant localement de nouvelles normes (forets de protections communautaires). La conservation du bonobo est utilisee en tant que moteur de developpement. Le bonobo efface ses dettes vis-a-vis de la communaute humaine et devient porteur d’un espoir local, « le diamant de Bolobo ». Les interactions entre les differents acteurs entrainent aussi une hybridation des savoirs locaux et scientifiques, participant a l’evolution des savoirs des uns et des autres. Ces resultats preliminaires concernant les modifications des statuts du bonobo sont probablement un des signes de changements plus profonds. Notre implication locale, a la fois dans la conservation et dans la recherche scientifique centree sur le bonobo rend difficile une analyse plus poussee des jeux d’acteurs. En revanche, dans la suite, une etude par un anthropologue de la conservation permettrait de completer cette premiere analyse pour faire ressortir les lieux de conflits et de tensions ainsi que les lieux de collaborations engendres par cette dynamique de conservation.

Bonobo conservation as a means for local development: an innovative local initiative of community-based conservation in Democratic Republic of Congo.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) ranks fifth in the world in terms of biodiversity (fauna and flora) and first for mammal diversity in Africa. There are numerous endemic species including bolobos (Pan paniscus). Bolobos are endangered, threatened mainly by deforestation, poaching and diseases, and the current population is estimated from 15,000 to 50,000 individuals. Nowadays, one national park (Salonga National Park) and six reserves exist for wild bolobo conservation, representing about 73,000 km2 of protected areas over an estimated distribution area of 565,000 km2. In the Bolobo Territory, an original local project of bolobo conservation was initiated in 2001 by the Congolese NGO Mbou-Mon-Tour (MMT). From 2008 to 2013, we studied bolobo-habitat-human interactions in this forest-savanna mosaic habitat, totalizing 12 months of survey over six periods. Besides eco-ethological studies, an ethnoecological approach was developed in order to better understand how the MMT project emerged and how it has evolved. We performed semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and informal discussions with local people. We also used grey literature associated to the region. MMT use the bolobo conservation as a means to reach local development goals, which is the opposite of what is frequent in the “community-based conservation” project managed by environmental NGOs. The location of the community forests and the rules established for regulating activities in these forests were decided by the villagers under the organization of traditional chiefs according to their knowledge on bolobo ecology and range, and the disturbance they perceived of the traditional activities in the forest. Such a process is a novel and promising approach for wildlife conservation that maintains the place of local people and traditional authorities in the decision-making process and the governance.

Wildlife Protection, Community Participation in Conservation, and (Dis) Empowerment in Southern Tanzania

The debate about conservation and human welfare (poverty or development) is no longer new in the literature. Yet, poverty and conservation challenges persist. This paper seeks to demonstrate how community involvement in conservation has both empowering and disempowering effects. The paper uses two villages in the Namtumbo district, one representing those villages that are involved in wildlife protection and the other representing those villages that are not involved in conservation. The paper addresses two questions: 1) does community participation in wildlife protection lead to their empowerment? and 2) does empowerment, in turn, lead to community development? Different methods of data collection were used, including quantitative interviews using questionnaire and the qualitative techniques (such as group discussions, observations, and secondary analysis of policies and village documents related to wildlife conservation projects). Findings from these sources drive the main argument of the paper that the relationship between community participation in conservation and economic empowerment remains problematic after two decades of community-based conservation interventions.

Meanings, drivers, and motivations for community-based conservation in Latin America

Meanings, drivers, and motivations for community-based conservation in Latin America

Conservation of a new breeding population of Caucasian lynx(Lynx lynx dinniki) in eastern Turkey

Current data on the distribution and ecology of the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in Turkey are limited. Furthermore, lynx in the Caucasus region are likely to represent a subspecies of the Eurasian lynx, the Caucasian lynx (L. l. dinniki). Throughout its range, lynx increasingly face threats due to human activity, with habitat loss and prey depletion being of particular concern in eastern Turkey. As part of our camera trapping efforts to monitor large carnivores in the Sarıkamış-Allahuekber National Park and surrounding forests in Kars and Erzurum provinces, eastern Turkey, we have documented a breeding population of Caucasian lynx outside the species' published range. In addition to the threats above, vehicle strikes, poaching, and guardian dogs also threaten this small population. There is an urgent need for ecological research, awareness raising, and community-based conservation efforts focused on large carnivores in the region.

Evolving hunting practices in Gabon: lessons for community-based conservation interventions

Walters, G., J. Schleicher, O. Hymas, and L. Coad. 2015. Evolving hunting practices in Gabon: lessons for community-based conservation interventions. Ecology and Society 20(4):31.http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-08047-200431

Sustainable livelihoods through conservation of wetland resources: a case of economic benefits from Ghodaghodi Lake, western Nepal

We investigated the participation of local ethnic groups in wetland conservation, determined the economic benefits that they received from the wetlands, and assessed socioeconomic factors that affect dependency on wetlands. A total of 217 wetland resource-user households residing around Ghodaghodi Lake, western Nepal were surveyed. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests and ordinary least squares regressions. The wetland resources contributed significantly to the household economy of the local people. Each household extracted lake resources at an annual worth of NPR 4379 ($63 USD), equivalent to 12.4% of the household total gross income. Although the people maintained a positive attitude toward wetland conservation, their participation in conservation efforts was inadequate. Socioeconomic factors such as larger household size, older age of the head of the family, and larger area of agricultural land increased the rate of resource extraction. In contrast, when households were involved with local conservation organizations, resource extraction was reduced. We recommend the following resource conservation and livelihood strategies: implementation of community-based conservation approaches to increase system productivity, adoption of biogas plants, and improved cooking stoves to reduce fuelwood consumption, coupled with conservation awareness programs.

Using Ostrom's common-pool resource theory to build toward an integrated ecosystem-based sustainable cetacean tourism system in Hawai`i

This paper explores the suitability of community-based conservation measures to complement a proposed command-and-control approach for two multi-user bays with spinner dolphins in Hawai`i, USA, which have considerable dolphin watching tourist activities and human–dolphin interactions. The paper uses Ostrom's common-pool resource theory as an analytical lens, with an assessment of the attributes of the resource and the user(s) to explore questions of governance and sustainability. In Hawai`i, spinner dolphins move predictably from offshore overnight feeding grounds into shallow bays for daytime rest, interacting frequently with humans using these bays for tourism and other social, recreational, and subsistence purposes. To reduce the current negative interactions with dolphins, managers are seeking to implement a command-and-control approach, namely time–area closures. Our analysis indicates that viewing the bay as a resource with tourism as one of many human demands, instead of specifically focusing on dolphins, reflects an ecosystem-based approach and acknowledges complex management demands. We found that while unrealistic to expect community-based conservation to spontaneously emerge here, cultivating some of Ostrom's attributes among stakeholders might lead to a more productive set of institutional arrangements that would benefit the dolphin population, with the methodology used potentially leading to a global management model.

Human harvesting impacts on managed areas: ecological effects of socially-compatible shellfish reserves

We examined how human harvesting impacts on managed areas affect the abundance and size distribution of the edible mangrove shellfish Anadara granosa and Polymesoda spp. in the Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands. We tested two hypotheses: (1) in areas permanently and temporally closed to human exploitation, abundance and size distribution of these shellfish species is significantly greater than in sites open to exploitation and (2) moderate human disturbance of shell beds, particularly of Polymesoda spp., increases their abundance. Firstly, we studied perceptions of environmental states and processes coupled to foraging and management interventions to assess sociocultural influences on harvesting practices and ascertain the types of management regime that people would consider in a context where poaching and interloping are common practices. Secondly, we compared shellfish abundance and shell size from areas that were permanently protected, temporally reserved for communal harvest, and permanently open for exploitation. Thirdly, drawing from women’s local knowledge, we measured the abundance of Polymesoda spp. in relation to mud compactness in quadrats across the three management regimes. Results showed that both species were significantly more abundant in permanent and temporally closed sites than in open sites. In the mud compactness study, however, while shell abundance was greater in moderately compacted quadrats, there was no statistical relationship between mud compactness and shell abundance within or across the three management regimes. Results suggest that even under the strong impacts of poaching, temporally closed areas have more clams than open areas and are as effective as areas that are permanently closed nominally. The results also suggest that human harvesting regimes can influence the effectiveness of local management decisions and thus are important when designing community-based conservation programs in the Solomon Islands and other Pacific Islands.

Toward More Effective Benefit Sharing in South African National Parks

More examples of positive and negative outcomes of community-based conservation initiatives aimed at benefit sharing are surfacing globally, and there is increasing interest in who wins and who loses at multiple scales. However, the term “benefit sharing” is not well defined in the context of protected areas, hindering the effective implementation thereof. We define benefit sharing as the process of making informed and fair trade-offs between social, economic, and ecological costs and benefits within and between stakeholder groups, and between stakeholders and the natural environment. We explore identifying appropriate benefits in certain contexts and monitoring benefit sharing initiatives using relevant qualitative and quantitative indicators. Finally, we use an illustrative case study of mopane worm harvesting from the Kruger National Park in South Africa to explore how benefit sharing as defined in the article can be implemented using a strategic adaptive management approach during the planning, assessment, and reporting phases.

Community-based Conservation in Managing Mangrove Rehabilitation in Perak and Selangor

Currently, Malaysia is at the forefront in enforcement in coastal management but lacks of research on the psychological factors in community-based conservation (CBC) affect mangrove rehabilitation. This paper aims to explore how the psychological factors in CBC influence willingness to participate (WTP) in mangrove rehabilitation. This study employed sequential mixed-method approach. The result shows majority of respondents in study area are WTP in mangrove rehabilitation. WTP had correlation with gender, education, race, benefit and risk perceived but no correlation with length of residency factor. The recommendation of CBC approach must be organised by the local community institutional mangrove rehabilitation.

Problem-solving versus appreciative inquiry approaches in community-based conservation

Community-based conservation (CBC) has re-emerged as an alternative to the failures of state-controlled conservation. Participation of local communities and traditional knowledge are central to the CBC concept. Although various participatory approaches have been used, few studies have reviewed the effectiveness of these approaches, particularly in achieving both conservation and livelihoods objectives. This paper analyses our own cumulative experience with participatory approaches in order to help improve general practice. We specifically report and analyse the merits and limitations of two approaches that we used in Indonesia: problem-solving (PS) and appreciative inquiry (AI). While CBC is rooted in local communities' knowledge and practices, most rural people in Indonesia lack confidence in their own potential, and are worried about being labelled ‘old fashioned’ if they maintain their traditions. Problems in managing natural resources should indeed be understood both by external actors and local stakeholders. However, using problems as the primary basis for formulating actions (the PS approach) exacerbated the tendency of communities to be highly dependent on external assistance and led to poor and slow progress. On the contrary, AI proved to be a powerful way to build the self-confidence and self-reliance of rural people, stimulated creative and innovative strategies, motivated active rather than simply nominal participation and helped sustain participatory and efficient processes.

Challenges facing local communities in Tanzania in realising locally-managed marine areas

This study explores how the history and process of establishing a marine protected area (MPA) under the control of the state has led to limited interest in community-based management amongst local stakeholders. The study contributes to the understanding of historical events that have discouraged the take-off and scale-up of community-based conservation approaches, such as locally-managed marine areas (LMMAs). LMMAs are being promoted increasingly as a desirable approach in marine conservation. However, there are a limited numbers of cases where such initiatives have been used as a strategy for marine management in sub-Saharan Africa, and very few operational examples of such schemes exist in the Western Indian Ocean region. Through semi-structured questionnaires, 193 community members selected randomly from 15 villages of the Mnazi Bay-Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park (MBREMP), Mtwara district, Southern Tanzania, were interviewed about their attitudes towards efforts to promote local management and the conservation of marine resources. The study also involved 17 focus group discussions, 13 in-depth key informant interviews, participant observation, and a review of secondary information. Over 85% of the questionnaire respondents commented that there was insufficient participation by legitimate community representatives in the development of the MBREMP. Almost 90% of the respondents agreed that the management of marine areas has increased significantly, particularly in the last two decades following initiatives by the government, donors and external NGOs. However, 70% of the questionnaire responders had observed that a rapid shift from centralised to community-based management has been hindered by a lack of acceptable community rules and by communities frequently equating conservation with prohibition. Developing LMMAs in areas based on the lessons learned from MPAs could be a better alternative to developing entirely new community-managed areas; however, this can only succeed if limitations including the key principles of community participation and empowerment are addressed.

Local participation in biodiversity conservation initiatives: A comparative analysis of different models in South East Mexico

In Mexico, biodiversity conservation is primarily implemented through three schemes: 1) protected areas, 2) payment-based schemes for environmental services, and 3) community-based conservation, officially recognized in some cases as Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas. In this paper we compare levels of local participation across conservation schemes. Through a survey applied to 670 households across six communities in Southeast Mexico, we document local participation during the creation, design, and implementation of the management plan of different conservation schemes. To analyze the data, we first calculated the frequency of participation at the three different stages mentioned, then created a participation index that characterizes the presence and relative intensity of local participation for each conservation scheme. Results showed that there is a low level of local participation across all the conservation schemes explored in this study. Nonetheless, the payment for environmental services had the highest local participation while the protected areas had the least. Our findings suggest that local participation in biodiversity conservation schemes is not a predictable outcome of a specific (community-based) model, thus implying that other factors might be important in determining local participation. This has implications on future strategies that seek to encourage local involvement in conservation.

The need to disentangle key concepts from ecosystem-approach jargon.

The ecosystem approach—as endorsed by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CDB) in 2000—is a strategy for holistic, sustainable, and equitable natural resource management, to be implemented via the 12 Malawi Principles. These principles describe the need to manage nature in terms of dynamic ecosystems, while fully engaging with local peoples. It is an ambitious concept. Today, the term is common throughout the research and policy literature on environmental management. However, multiple meanings have been attached to the term, resulting in confusion. We reviewed references to the ecosystem approach from 1957 to 2012 and identified 3 primary uses: as an alternative to ecosystem management or ecosystem-based management; in reference to an integrated and equitable approach to resource management as per the CBD; and as a term signifying a focus on understanding and valuing ecosystem services. Although uses of this term and its variants may overlap in meaning, typically, they do not entirely reflect the ethos of the ecosystem approach as defined by the CBD. For example, there is presently an increasing emphasis on ecosystem services, but focusing on these alone does not promote decentralization of management or use of all forms of knowledge, both of which are integral to the CBD’s concept. We highlight that the Malawi Principles are at risk of being forgotten. To better understand these principles, more effort to implement them is required. Such efforts should be evaluated, ideally with comparative approaches, before allowing the CBD’s concept of holistic and socially engaged management to be abandoned or superseded. It is possible that attempts to implement all 12 principles together will face many challenges, but they may also offer a unique way to promote holistic and equitable governance of natural resources. Therefore, we believe that the CBD’s concept of the ecosystem approach demands more attention.La Necesidad de Desenredar Conceptos Clave del Argot Ambiente-EstrategiaResumenLa estrategia ambiental – como es promocionada por la Convención Biológica sobre Diversidad en 2000 – es una estrategia para un manejo holístico, sustentable y equitativo de recursos naturales, que habrá de implementarse por vía de los 12 Principios de Malawi. Estos principios describen la necesidad de manejar la naturaleza en términos de ecosistemas dinámicos, mientras se compromete totalmente con las personas locales. Es un concepto ambicioso. Hoy en día, el término es común en la investigación y la literatura de políticas sobre el manejo ambiente. Sin embargo, se han relacionado múltiples significados con el término, lo que resulta en confusión. Revisamos referencias a la estrategia ambiental de 1957 a 2012 e identificamos tres usos principales: como una alternativa para manejo ambiental o basado en ecosistemas; en referencia a una estrategia integrada y equitativa para el manejo de recursos según la CBD; y como un término que indica un enfoque en el entendimiento y la valuación de los servicios ambientales. Aunque los usos de este término y sus variantes pueden traslaparse en su significado, típicamente no reflejan en su totalidad los valores de la estrategia ambiental como fue definida por la CBD. Por ejemplo, actualmente hay un énfasis creciente en los servicios ambientales, pero enfocarse solamente en estos no promueve la descentralización del manejo o el uso de todas las formas de conocimiento, siendo ambas integrales para el concepto de la CBD. Resaltamos que los Principios de Malawi están en riesgo de ser olvidados. Para entender mejor estos principios, se requiere de más esfuerzo para implementarlos. Dichos esfuerzos deben ser evaluados, idóneamente con estrategias comparativas, antes de permitir que el concepto de la CBD de manejo holístico y comprometido socialmente sea abandonado o reemplazado. Es posible que los intentos por implementar los 12 principios juntos enfrentarán muchos obstáculos, pero también pueden ofrecer una forma única de promover el gobierno holístico y equitativo de los recursos naturales. Así, creemos que el concepto de estrategia ambiental de la CBD exige mayor atención.

Community-based conservation programs and local people willingness to pay for wildlife protection: The case of the cotton-top tamarin in the Colombian Caribbean

Community-Based Conservation programs (CBC) are designed on the assumption that local communities are crucial to the success of the conservation agenda. There is the expectation that, by providing benefits to the local people, they will support conservation because it is economically beneficial. This paper uses willingness to pay (WTP) for habitat preservation of the cotton-top tamarin in the Colombian Caribbean as a means to assess the effect of participation in a CBC program on the support for additional conservation. Using the contingent valuation method, we found that: First, households deriving income from conservation activities are more supportive of additional habitat preservation; second, participants and non-participants in the CBC program are equally sensitive to increments in the costs of conservation; and, third, the CBC program is not a burden for non-participant households.

Assessment of the main factors impacting community members’ attitudes towards tourism and protected areas in six southern African countries

In southern Africa, many early conservation efforts from the late 1800s and early 1900s either displaced local communities or restricted their access to natural resources. This naturally affected community attitudes towards protected areas and efforts were later made to rectify growing tensions. In the last few decades of the 20th century, these efforts led to conservation and ecotourism models that increasingly included communities in the decision-making and benefit-sharing process in order to garner their support. Although the results of these policies were mixed, it is clear that the future success of conservation and, consequently, ecotourism in many areas will depend on the attitudes and behaviour of communities living in or adjacent to protected areas. Managing and understanding community expectations and attitudes under varying socio-economic circumstances will lead to more efficient, equitable and sustainable community-based conservation and ecotourism models. This study was based on 1400 community interview schedules conducted in Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe, allowing for an accurate comparison of attitudes across countries, protected areas and communities. The results highlighted important demographic and socio-economic factors to consider in terms of understanding the attitudes of those living in and around protected areas. Suggestions were put forward for managing community relationships and garnering long-term support for protected areas and ecotourism. Conservation implications: It was observed that, in general, community members living in or adjacent to conservation areas in southern Africa have an understanding and appreciation of the importance of conservation. Formal education was found to positively impact attitudes and human–wildlife conflict negatively impacted attitudes, highlighting important policy focus areas.

Community-based conservation: the key to protection of marine turtles on Maio Island, Cape Verde

Community-based conservation: the key to protection of marine turtles on Maio Island, Cape Verde

Correction: Combining Natural History Collections with Fisher Knowledge for Community-Based Conservation in Fiji

Correction: Combining Natural History Collections with Fisher Knowledge for Community-Based Conservation in Fiji

Species and habitat conservation through small locally recognised and community managed Special Conservation Sites

Species extinction rate is accelerating at an alarming rate all over the world. Conservation organizations are working day and night to halt this process by mapping areas for important biodiversity and highlighting these as priority areas for conservation. Most priority sites for conservation so far have been very large in area. Although some biodiversity is already lost, there is still much to conserve in the Himalayan region. Special Conservation Site (SCS) is an innovative concept for the conservation of small but important biodiversity congregation sites through a people participatory approach. Various guidelines and criteria are set as standard towards making this initiative readily accepted by all conservationists. By initiating this concept, we argue that SCS become a centre for education and awareness on the significance of biodiversity, mentor community-based conservation leaders, provide some income and ultimately add value to the larger landscape level initiatives and protected areas. SCS conservation should be an agenda for all.