Amazonian Communities Research Articles

Asymmetrical niche determinism across geological units shapes phylogenetic tree communities in the Colombian Amazonia

We evaluate the role of differences in substrate age and environmental conditions, as represented by different geological units, in determining the phylogenetic structure and distribution of tree communities in the northwest Amazon. We used 412 0.1-ha plots distributed across the three main geological units (craton, tertiary and alluvial) in the Colombian Amazon, to answer the following research questions: i) To what extent do environmental filtering and dispersal limitation determine the phylogenetic composition of tree communities across geological units in the Colombian Amazon? and ii) Are there differences between geological units in the extent to which niche conservatism shapes the phylogenetic structure of indicator species (i.e., strong habitat-specialists) in tree communities? The results of our study give support for both environmental filtering and dispersal being important drivers of the phylogenetic structure and turnover of tree communities. Nonetheless, the extent to which geology explained the phylogenetic turnover of tree communities was surpassed by the geographic distance between plots, which was used to account for effects of dispersal limitation. This finding suggests that most of the lineages have had sufficient time to migrate and establish into adjacent geological units, contradicting claims that geological conditions are the dominant factors determining the distribution of tree communities across northwestern Amazonia. However, in the craton unit, indicator species were more closely related than expected by chance, while in the alluvial and tertiary units, observed relationships were not statistically different from null expectations. These results indicate that environmental filtering is asymmetrical among geological units, with the craton environment being the most restrictive. In contrast, the alluvial unit may be relatively easy to colonize and hence ecological strategies may be more labile through evolutionary history.

Local rainfall trends and their perceptions by Amazonian communities

Climate change in the Amazon region is the subject of many studies not only due to its stance as an emblematic ecosystem but also as a region where changes have been dramatic for over 30 years, mainly due to deforestation. We investigate how people settled in the Amazon perceive environmental changes by comparing these perceptions with satellite rainfall data for 12 sites representing the community diversity in the region. Perceptions are varied and agreement with physical, measured data is not always good. However, the arc of deforestation, where the downward trend of rainfall is more strongly observed, also appears as the region where the populations have the highest perception of rainfall change.

What fate for swidden agriculture under land constraint in tropical forests? Lessons from a long-term study in an Amazonian peasant community

What happens when swidden cultivation systems in tropical forests become land-constrained? In this paper we report the findings of a long-term, interdisciplinary project on swidden farming, swidden farming households, and the forest landscape in a Peruvian Amazonian peasant community that has faced growing land scarcity over the past 35 years. Data were gathered at the household and plot level in 1994/95 and 2007 on land use, land cover, demographics, income and assets. By employing ‘retrospective field history assessment’, we reconstructed the historical land portfolios and demographic profiles of households since inception, enabling us to track changes in cropping and fallowing as well as land cover change and household composition through time. These data were combined with aerial photograph and satellite imagery interpretation to independently assess change in forest cover and type. We find that farmers confronted growing land scarcity through outmigration, diversification of land holdings, increased use of fallow products and of orchards as both an income source and as fallows, and agricultural innovation through the use of biochar on charcoal kiln sites and home gardens. The forest surrounding the community has become younger over time and more heterogeneous in age but more homogeneous in biodiversity. The paper concludes with five general lessons: (1) forest peasants are highly resilient to land scarcity; (2) forests play an overlooked role in agricultural intensification; (3) the ‘modal’ forest farmer does not exist; (4) early land endowment is key to understanding farmer land use and poverty dynamics; and, (5) swidden forests are social landscapes.

Extractivism and the rights of nature: governmentality, ‘convenient communities’ and epistemic pacts in Ecuador

ABSTRACTEcuador’s recently adopted conflict resolution techniques have aggravated the always tense encounters between Amazonian indigenous communities, oil companies and the state. The state’s governmentality project portrays these socio-environmental conflicts as mere technical–managerial issues while societal coalitions re-politicize them through territorial defense struggles. The Cofán Dureno case highlights how the self-proclaimed ‘Citizen’s Revolution’ government seeks to redefine socio-natural relationships and territorial identities, devising ‘communities of convenience’. These correspond to the state’s own images, political structure and ideology, promoting ‘community participation’ to facilitate oil extraction. Ecuador’s constitutionally recognized Rights of Nature (paradoxically installed by the same government) are analyzed with a focus on their potential for resisting socio-environmental injustice. The internationally celebrated inclusion of these rights in the Constitution was advocated by nonindigenous intellectual activists but influenced and supported by the indigenous movement. Beyond legal implications, these rights might foster an epistemic pact between indigenous and nonindigenous society to defend territories from extractive industries.

Work relations and helping in the lives of Amazon rural women workers

Changes in methods of agricultural production have impacted on the lives of those involved in this sector. New social relations, technologies, values and landscapes have been introduced as well as potential risks to health. Female workers have a specific experience that requires a closer analysis to understand their situation. The research addresses the interrelationship of health, work, and the environment of women agriculturalists in a rural Amazonian community. This focus allows the identification and understanding of relations between the women and the actors with whom they share daily activities and the implications for health, work, and self-image. Using qualitative methods the experiences of 47 women were captured through collective interviews, which were analysed by Nucleus of Meaning Analysis (NMA), adapted from Categorical Content Analysis. Work is central to the lives of the women workers but is attributed with different meanings depending on the context and the relationship. It was found that the relationship with employers increases the risk of workplace exploitation; with male partners work is characterised as ‘helping’. Work with female co-workers increases a sense of identity, strengthens social bonds and an ability to solve problems. In conclusion, in addition to issues related to production methods, the subjective relational universe of these workers is marked by a complexity that impacts on their lives and health. The authors suggest that research on the impact of daily life and workplace on health considers the different and complex relations and subjective demands, especially in contexts endowed with uniqueness.

Risks and strategies of Amazonian households: Retail sales and mass-market consumption amongcaboclowomen

The Amazon is widely regarded as a peripheral region, connected to international economies as a supplier of forest materials. However, little research investigates other ways Amazonian residents are connected to global markets, especially through the sale and consumption of mass-produced goods. This article presents ethnographic research investigating the risks and value of working as a direct sales representative for global beauty brands in three Amazonian communities. While direct sales offers potentially significant income, in practice, most representatives earn meager profits or just break even; many lose money, and some fall into debt. I address the question of why women would pursue an activity with a high risk of financial loss from an institutional and feminist economic perspective. The findings reveal that the risk of debt, as well as the potential household contribution from direct sales, derives from the particular institutional environment that characterizes rural Amazonian communities. The appeal of direct sales lies in the opportunities it affords for social inclusion and enhancing household well-being. These opportunities include access to discounted consumer goods, social bonds through sales relationships, and participation in “global sociality” through direct sales catalogs and products.

Buen Vivir: Praise, instrumentalization, and reproductive pathways of good living in Ecuador

ABSTRACTIn this article, we trace the avatars of the official concept of Buen Vivir (Good Living), and its understanding and translation as Sumak Kausay in the new Constitution of Ecuador, where it was converted from a subaltern concept that emerged in the 1990s to the country’s trademark. Our main hypothesis is that although Buen Vivir may be described as a social phenomenon in some specific social contexts (such as among Amazonian Sarayaku indigenous communities), it mostly represents an invented tradition. As a subordinate hypothesis, we argue that Buen Vivir, which originally appeared at the margins of the State and political power, later became an empty signifier, allowing for its instrumentalization and co-optation by the Citizens’ Revolution and generating an opening for future prospects in the way of operationalization and internationalization that converged with efforts to promote alternative measures and notions of development to the GDP.

Brood parasitism by the enigmatic and rare Pavonine Cuckoo in Amazonian Peru

ABSTRACT Brood parasitism is an uncommon and understudied strategy in Amazonian bird communities, within which only 5 species are known to be brood parasites. We present data on the brood-parasitic behavior of the Pavonine Cuckoo (Dromococcyx pavoninus) in 3 host species of small-bodied flycatchers in the Peruvian Amazon that construct hanging globular nests with side entrances. During the 7 yr of the study, we encountered 74 nests of these 3 hosts, but parasitism occurred only in 9 nests (12.2%) in 2 yr. Only 1 Pavonine Cuckoo egg was deposited in each host nest (n = 7), and eggs were markedly dissimilar in size and coloration between hosts and parasite. Incubation investment per day was slightly higher (4%) for 1 parasitized nest than for nonparasitized nests. Overall, 33% of parasitic eggs (n = 6) hatched; cuckoo nestlings apparently removed host eggs and killed host nestlings. The nestling period lasted 24 days, and the growth-rate constant based on nestling mass (k = 0.23) was slower for parasite nes...

Atividade pesqueira dos índios Mura no Lago Ayapuá, Baixo Rio Purus, Amazonas, Brasil

A pesca artesanal apresenta grande importância para as comunidades indígenas Amazônicas, como meio de subsistência e pelas marcas culturais e de tradição dessas comunidades. Neste estudo analisamos a pesca desenvolvida em quatro comunidades indígenas da etnia Mura da Terra Indígena Lago Ayapuá (TI-LA) no baixo rio Purus. Caracterizou-se a pesca quanto à composição e importância das espécies em peso e número de indivíduos, estrutura e tamanho dos indivíduos capturados, e peso total das capturas, entre outubro e dezembro de 2008. As espécies mais comercializadas foram o aruanã (Osteoglossum bicirrhosum), pescada (Plagioscion squamosissimus), as “feras” (dourada, Brachyplatystoma rousseauxii e filhote Brachyplatystoma filamentosum) e o tucunaré Cichla monoculus. Já as espécies mais consumidas foram aruanã, tucunaré, piranha-caju (Pygocentrus nattereri) e acará-açu (Astronotus crassipinni). Espécies como tucunaré e pescada apresentam tamanhos de captura dentro dos padrões permitidos pela legislação. No entanto, o acará-açu, aruanã, tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum), surubim (Pseudoplatystoma punctifer), caparari (Pseudoplatystoma tigrinum), filhote e dourada não apresentam o mesmo padrão legal. A maior parte da produção (87%) foi destinada para a comercialização com barcos atravessadores. Medidas mitigatórias e preventivas são propostas para garantir a permanência dos estoques pesqueiros e consequentemente a sustentabilidade da pesca e a manutenção da população ribeirinha local.

Plants and the Law: Vegetal Ontologies and the Rights of Nature. a Perspective from Latin America

For many Amazonian indigenous communities plants play a central political role within and outside their territories. Vegetal beings are considered a source of knowledge and authority, as well as the origin of law itself. This article addresses the social and legal agency of (vegetal) nonhuman beings in Latin American constitutionalism. I suggest that non-anthropocentric concepts of society, politics, and law should take seriously inter-species encounters, and how they unfold in legal norms, institutions, and practices. In the first section, I briefly discuss the emergence of the so called ‘nonhuman turn’ in the humanities, as well as its influence on what Uruguayan political ecologist Eduardo Gudynas calls the bio-centric turn in Latin American constitutionalism. An expression of this bio-centric turn, Article 71 of the Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador 2008, grants rights to nature. In the second section, I offer two anthropological readings of this clause. I suggest that non-anthropocentric thinking in Latin American legal theory could help us to redefine concepts such as justice and standing, among others, to better face the environmental challenges of the present. Taking cues from the science of plant sensing and intelligence, I suggest, in the last section, that plants can serve as a sort of prototype of (vegetal) nonhuman agency that fully asserts Amerindian principles of relationality and interdependency between all living and nonliving entities. For this purpose, I will briefly refer to the use of an Amazonian ritual plant in the context of indigenous political and legal concepts.

Ethnopharmacological Evaluation of Breu Essential Oils from Protium Species Administered by Inhalation.

Background Breu is an aromatic oleoresin which has been used by Amazonian traditional communities as a remedy for headaches and migraines by burning and inhaling the smoke produced during its combustion. This study evaluated the antinociceptive and sedative activities of formulations containing breu essential oils administered by inhalation. Methods Five different formulations (A–E) containing breu essential oils were evaluated for their sedative and antinociceptive activities in mice. They were delivered for 20 minutes using an inhalation chamber coupled with a nebulizer and the air inside was collected by static headspace and analyzed by GC-FID. Results All nebulized formulations had similar chemical compositions and major compounds as the original essential oils. None of them resulted in significant increase in response time during the hot plate test. In the formalin test, Formulation E showed a significant inhibition of licking responses in the early (46.8%) and late (60.2%) phases. Formulation B was effective (36.9%) in the first phase and Formulation D (37.9%) in the second. None of the formulations presented sedative effects. Conclusion Breu essential oils, when inhaled, may present antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory properties without sedation. Additionally, nebulization proved to be an efficient method for administration of formulations containing these essential oils.

Conditional Cash Transfers, Food Security, and Health: Biocultural Insights for Poverty-Alleviation Policy from the Brazilian Amazon

Conditional cash transfer (CCT) programs have become an increasingly popular component of poverty-alleviation policies worldwide. The highly publicized success of Brazil’s Bolsa Familia program (BFP), the largest such program in the world, has become a model for CCT programs elsewhere, including in highly rural African nations. This is despite the dearth of information on the impact of the program in rural contexts. Drawing on a unique natural experiment and using detailed anthropometric and dietary data collected in rural Amazonian subsistence-based communities, we analyze the impact of this critical policy on programmatic goals among the rural poor. Our data demonstrate the urgent need for more fine-grained biocultural research on this and similar policies. We show that despite close adherence to programmatic conditionalities, recipient households’ food security was measurably worse off and children’s poor nutritional status was virtually unchanged 4 years into the program. Using detailed ethnographic i...

Insights into regional patterns of Amazonian forest structure, diversity, and dominance from three large terra-firme forest dynamics plots

We analyze forest structure, diversity, and dominance in three large-scale Amazonian forest dynamics plots located in Northwestern (Yasuni and Amacayacu) and central (Manaus) Amazonia, to evaluate their consistency with prevailing wisdom regarding geographic variation and the shape of species abundance distributions, and to assess the robustness of among-site patterns to plot area, minimum tree size, and treatment of morphospecies. We utilized data for 441,088 trees (DBH ≥1 cm) in three 25-ha forest dynamics plots. Manaus had significantly higher biomass and mean wood density than Yasuni and Amacayacu. At the 1-ha scale, species richness averaged 649 for trees ≥1 cm DBH, and was lower in Amacayacu than in Manaus or Yasuni; however, at the 25-ha scale the rankings shifted, with Yasuni < Amacayacu < Manaus. Within each site, Fisher’s alpha initially increased with plot area to 1–10 ha, and then showed divergent patterns at larger areas depending on the site and minimum size. Abundance distributions were better fit by lognormal than by logseries distributions. Results were robust to the treatment of morphospecies. Overall, regional patterns in Amazonian tree species diversity vary with the spatial scale of analysis and the minimum tree size. The minimum area to capture local diversity is 2 ha for trees ≥1 cm DBH, or 10 ha for trees ≥10 cm DBH. The underlying species abundance distribution for Amazonian tree communities is lognormal, consistent with the idea that the rarest species have not yet been sampled. Enhanced sampling intensity is needed to fill the still large voids we have in plant diversity in Amazon forests.

Riverine fishers' knowledge of extreme climatic events in the Brazilian Amazonia.

BackgroundClimate change is altering climate patterns, mainly increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme events with potentially serious impacts on natural resources and the people that use them. Adapting to such impacts will require the integration of scientific and local (folk) knowledge, especially the first-hand experiences and perceptions of resource users such as fishers. In this study, we identify how commercial riverine fishers in the Amazon remember extreme climatic events (flood and drought) and how they face the consequences of extreme events on fish availability.MethodsData were collected from the main Manaus fishery harbor between June and October of 2013. Semi-structured questionnaires and a historical timeline technique were used to gather data from artisanal commercial fishers. Fishers’ knowledge of extreme climate events was assessed by their “cultural consensus” for identification of event years and perceived impacts. Fishers’ responses were also compared to hydrological data to test their similarity.ResultsThere was a high level of cultural consensus among fishers about extreme events years. They were able to identify four consecutive unusual droughts, between 2009 and 2012. Elevated levels of fish mortality and decreases in the fishery were perceived as consequences of the drought events, as well as, a reduction in fish size, and disappearance of some species. Extreme flood events were associated with greater difficulties accessing fishing grounds.ConclusionsExtreme climatic events (floods and droughts) were remembered, and the recent increase in their intensity and frequency was also perceived. Moreover, extreme climate event (mainly droughts) impacts on fishery resources were also observed. Such information is potentially valuable for educational programs to further improve adaptation of local Amazonian fishing communities to future climate change, e.g. increasing local ecological knowledge using learning material based on their perception.

Effects of urbanization on stream benthic invertebrate communities in Central Amazon

Urbanization and its physical and chemical effects on aquatic environments influence invertebrate communities negatively. Yet, it is not clear how urbanization affects inter-annual variation of invertebrate assemblages in streams. We 1) evaluated urbanization effects on the ecological conditions (biotic and abiotic) of streams in Manaus and 2) analyzed invertebrate community variation over time (between 2003 and 2010). Data on abiotic variables and invertebrates from 2003 were obtained from a previous study. In 2010 we sampled abiotic variables and invertebrate communities in the same low-order urban streams sampled in 2003 (n=40). We recorded high values of total nitrogen, total phosphorous, deforestation, total impervious area (TIA), water temperature, pH, and electrical conductivity in the most urbanized streams, as compared to the least-impacted ones. In contrast, the least-impacted streams had high dissolved oxygen concentrations. Water quality was poorer in 2010 than in 2003: oxygen concentration was lower and total nitrogen, total phosphorous, deforestation, and TIA significantly higher in 2010. We recorded higher inter-annual variation of abiotic variables in the most-impacted streams as compared to the least-impacted streams. EPT (%, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera) and richness metrics decreased with urbanization. On the other hand, % OP (percent of Oligochaeta and Psychodidae) increased with urbanization. Observed and EPT richness and% OP increased between 2003 and 2010. On the other hand, rarefied richness decreased between years. Increases of observed and EPT richness between 2003 and 2010 were related to low inter-annual variability in streams conditions; however, differences of% OP and rarefied richness were not related to inter-annual variability in environmental conditions. The degree of urbanization did not explain the magnitude of the within-stream difference of invertebrate communities between 2003 and 2010. The increased effects of urbanization represented by the abiotic variables sampled and the reduction of invertebrate richness and increased dominance of tolerant taxa indicate that public policy is not enough to protect or mitigate human impacts on the urban water systems under study.

Molecular Study of the Amazonian Macabea Cattle History

Macabea cattle are the only Bos taurus breed that have adapted to the wet tropical conditions of the Amazon. This breed has integrated into the culture of the indigenous Shuar-Asuar nations probably since its origins, being one of the few European zoogenetic resources assimilated by the deep-jungle Amazon communities. Despite its potential for local endogenous sustainable development, this breed is currently endangered. The present study used molecular genetics tools to investigate the within- and between-breeds diversity, in order to characterize the breed population, define its associations with other breeds, and infer its origin and evolution. The within-breed genetic diversity showed high values, as indicated by all genetic parameters, such as the mean number of alleles (MNA = 7.25±2.03), the observed heterozygosity (Ho = 0.72±0.02) and the expected heterozygosity (He = 0.72±0.02). The between-breeds diversity analysis, which included factorial correspondence analysis, Reynolds genetic distance, neighbor-joining analysis, and genetic structure analysis, showed that the Macabea breed belongs to the group of the American Creoles, with a Southern-Spain origin. Our outcomes demonstrated that the Macabea breed has a high level of purity and null influences of exotic cosmopolitan breeds with European or Asiatic origin. This breed is an important zoogenetic resource of Ecuador, with relevant and unique attributes; therefore, there is an urgent need to develop conservation strategies for the Macabea breed.

Persistence of Rabies Virus-Neutralizing Antibodies after Vaccination of Rural Population following Vampire Bat Rabies Outbreak in Brazil.

BackgroundAnimal control measures in Latin America have decreased the incidence of urban human rabies transmitted by dogs and cats; currently most cases of human rabies are transmitted by bats. In 2004–2005, rabies outbreaks in populations living in rural Brazil prompted widespread vaccination of exposed and at-risk populations. More than 3,500 inhabitants of Augusto Correa (Pará State) received either post-exposure (PEP) or pre-exposure (PrEP) prophylaxis. This study evaluated the persistence of rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies (RVNA) annually for 4 years post-vaccination. The aim was to evaluate the impact of rabies PrEP and PEP in a population at risk living in a rural setting to help improve management of vampire bat exposure and provide additional data on the need for booster vaccination against rabies.Methodology/Principal FindingsThis prospective study was conducted in 2007 through 2009 in a population previously vaccinated in 2005; study participants were followed-up annually. An RVNA titer >0.5 International Units (IU)/mL was chosen as the threshold of seroconversion. Participants with titers ≤0.5 IU/mL or Equivalent Units (EU)/mL at enrollment or at subsequent annual visits received booster doses of purified Vero cell rabies vaccine (PVRV). Adherence of the participants from this Amazonian community to the study protocol was excellent, with 428 of the 509 (84%) who attended the first interview in 2007 returning for the final visit in 2009. The long-term RVNA persistence was good, with 85–88.0% of the non-boosted participants evaluated at each yearly follow-up visit remaining seroconverted. Similar RVNA persistence profiles were observed in participants originally given PEP or PrEP in 2005, and the GMT of the study population remained >1 IU/mL 4 years after vaccination. At the end of the study, 51 subjects (11.9% of the interviewed population) had received at least one dose of booster since their vaccination in 2005.Conclusions/SignificanceThis study and the events preceding it underscore the need for the health authorities in rabies enzootic countries to decide on the best strategies and timing for the introduction of routine rabies PrEP vaccination in affected areas.

The public and private dimensions of a birthday party: Politics, economics, and food in an Amazonian community

ABSTRACTThe emergence of the birthday party among the Tsimane' Indians of the Bolivian Amazon is a phenomenon embedded in political economy and connected to larger state initiatives that integrate historically marginalized indigenous peoples into state processes and cash economies, both directly and indirectly. Focusing on the sharing of meals and beverages during the celebration of birthday parties, this article demonstrates two ways in which the public and private lives of the Tsimane' are negotiated. The first concerns the relationships of Tsimane' to the nation by considering their involvement in state and global markets and new forms of Bolivian bureaucracy that led to the formal acknowledgement of individuals' birthdays. The second explores relationships within the community and between households, families, and individuals. This article highlights differences between everyday eating and party eating to discuss the ongoing formulation of modern Tsimane' life.

Inclusive Development and the Asymmetric State: Big Projects and Local Communities in the Brazilian Amazon

ABSTRACTIn 2003, the Workers’ Party took federal office in Brazil on an agenda of social inclusion and popular participation. This paper explores attempts to implement that agenda in big infrastructure projects in the Amazon: the BR-163 road and the Belo Monte dam. We argue that overlapping inequalities (between social groups, within the bureaucracy and between territorial centre and periphery) result in uneven state capacities for implementing projects in the Amazon. This framework helps explain why the government has moved much faster in building infrastructure than in implementing participatory social and environmental programmes that would benefit affected local communities.

A failed Social Licence to Operate for the neoliberal modernization of Amazonian resource use: the underlying causes of the Bagua tragedy of Peru: Table 1

The concept of a social licence to operate (SLO) was originally developed for mining and has since been extended to other resource extraction operations, such as forestry. We develop and apply SLO theory as the conceptual framework to analyse neoliberal economic development in the Peruvian Amazon. The Peruvian administration of Alan Garcia secured a legal licence to pursue this programme through legislative decrees, but the policies were not considered legitimate by Amazonian communities. As such the administration lacked a SLO from the communities affected by the policies. The failure to obtain a SLO led to civil protests culminating in violent confrontations between police and citizens causing 33 deaths. Theoretically, the study extends SLO analysis from projects proposed by companies and contested by communities to government policy decisions that may support actions by companies but which are contested by a range of social actors. The state, we argue, is not a neutral arbitrator in economic development and resource extraction but an active political agent. As such, it needs to legitimize its policies. In addition to the SLO literature, therefore, we also draw from legitimacy theory and argue that legitimacy requires both legal compliance and coherence with wider societal norms and standards.