Communist Era Research Articles

„Rosja powstaje z kolan” — uwagi o polityce historycznej kremlowskiej elity

“Russia rises from its knees” (remarks on the historical policy of the Kremlin elite) The author focuses in his reflections on the historical policy of the Russian Federation’s leadership. Activities in this area, evident since the early days of Putin’s rule, became particularly intense after Putin assumed the presidency again (2012), resulting in the establishment of a number of “social” institutions seeking to promote the official vision of history, in an attempt to interfere with school and university curricula, a campaign against “falsifiers of history” and repressive measures against organisations promoting a different interpretation of the country’s history (e.g. Memorial). Leading representatives of the Russian establishment became actively involved in creating the official vision of the past: in addition to the arbitrary Putin, parliament speakers, government ministers and even the heads of the atomic and intelligence agencies were keen to speak on historical issues as well. Prominence in this campaign was given to the propaganda of the idea of a “Russian world” (Russkiy mir), referring to the dogma of a “triune Russian nation” (including the Belarusians and the Ukrainians), actively supported by the Moscow Patriarchate, the appeal of which was strongly compromised only by the annexation of Crimea. In the article the author analyses Putin’s main historical statements, with a particular focus on his 2019–2022 speeches, characterised by undisguised resentment towards the West (including Poland) and hostility towards Ukraine. According to the author, from the historical point of view, Putin’s arguments are a mixture of contents taken from the sinister traditions of nineteenth-century Great Russian chauvinism, denying the Ukrainians the right to a national consciousness and language, and the views — fashionable in recent years among the Russian elite — whereby the national and state status of Ukraine is as young as it is artificial, as if it were an invention in the ideological sense of the last decades of the nineteenth century, and in the political sense — an artificial construct of the communist era, owing its existence solely to the leadership of the USSR. An analysis of the main publications and speeches of the Russian president clearly demonstrates the modest level of his own knowledge and the poor qualifications of his intellectual base. According to the author, history in the service of Putin’s propaganda has been reduced to a political instrument to be used on the tactical level, in the relatively short term, which corresponds well to the Kremlin elite’s perception of politics more as an ad hoc operational game than a subject of strategic planning.

Consumer ethnocentrism influence in choosing a hotel in domestic tourism – evidence from Romania and Croatia

Purpose: The role of consumer ethnocentrism (CE) in choosing a hotel is still not well explored. This research aims to identify if there is a relationship between CE and the preference of Romanian/Croatian respondents for a hotel belonging to a domestic chain vs. international (foreign) chain. Methodology: Exploratory and descriptive research was performed. The data were collected thorough an online survey, aiming for a quota sample stratified by age and gender. The resulting sample comprises 714 and 832 valid questionnaires in Romania and in Croatia, respectively. Factor analysis, nonparametric correlation analysis, and hypothesis testing were performed. Results: “Defensive patriotism” and “protectionism” were identified as CE factors. CE is moderately expressed for Croatian and Romanian respondents. Respondents from two countries with higher CE factors prefer a national rather than an international hotel. Customers who grew up in the communist era have higher ethnocentrism scores on defensive patriotism and protectionism and prefer national hotels more than those formed in the post-communist period. Conclusion: The results of this research relate to the previously revealed regularity that ethnocentric consumers prefer buying national rather than foreign goods and services. The same is now confirmed for respondents’ hotel preferences when engaging in domestic tourism, contributing to closing a research gap. However, the results indicate that polycentric consumers might evaluate hotels by other criteria and not necessarily by their association with an international chain. In addition, in the case of re-checking post-COVID-19 results, the results presented here can serve as a pre-COVID-19 baseline.

ALLA GORSKA IN THE MEMORIES OF CONTEMPORARIES

ALLA GORSKA IN THE MEMORIES OF CONTEMPORARIES

Improving functional standards of apartments in buildings from large-panels, on the example of solutions applied in Lublin in the 1970s and 1980s of the 20th century

Housing blocks constructed from prefabricated elements have been the backbone of housing resources in many Polish cities in the last fifty years. Over the time, the residents’ expectations regarding the residential amenity standards, as well as demographic structure of the estates built in the communist era have changed. Therefore, the current residents’ needs significantly differ from the needs and expectations of those who took over the newly built flats in the last quarter of the 20th century. Fundamentally, the functional and spatial standards of flats built before 1989 are already out of date. The proper functioning of the usable dwelling space of these apartments has gained additional importance due to the inhabitants getting progressively older and, especially recently, the prolonged SARS CoV-2 pandemic. The introduction of the lockdown, which involved strict restrictions on movement outside the place of residence during the pandemic, made the apartments the centre of life and a place of work for many families. Suddenly, for psychophysical reasons, the importance of having larger floor space, than the functional solutions typically used in the 1970s and 1980s offered, has increased. It appears that the residents begun to take interest in all possible solutions to improve the functionality of their homes.The aim of the article is to present proposals for contemporary architectural solutions that can improve the functionality of these apartments that would increase residents’ standard of living and everyday comfort.

Neon signs in urban space, yesterday and today. A case study based on Lublin

During the communist era, neon signs were something Poland could boast of. At that time, the streets were drowning in luminous advertising, which was impossible not to notice. Recent years have brought disastrous quality of urban advertising and the prevailing arbitrariness has contributed to the degeneration of urban spaces. Colourful neon signs once prevailed in Polish streets, serving as a model example of advertising whose impact was crucial in the perception of urban space. Today, neon signs are considered works of art, and the most valuable achievement of Polish 20th century design, which we can mainly admire today in museums. In the last decade, we have been reminded of their existence and efforts have been made to save them and return them to urban spaces. The purpose of the article is to draw attention to the extraordinary value of neon signs as an important building block of urban space and to highlight their artistic and social functions. The undertaken research includes material on neon signs from the communist era as well as those newly designed, based on the city of Lublin.

Two Protestants, Three Churches: Croatian Protestantism: Churches, Denominations, and Theological Institutions

Using the existing data from the national census (2011 and 2021) and other available data sources, the authors present Croatian Protestantism on the national level as a fragmented minority. In search for possible historic reasons for this fragmentized mode of existence, they proceed with an overview of Protestant presence in the Croatian lands, starting from the early adoption of Protestant ideas, eradicated by the Catholic Counter-Reformation up to the ghettoization of the Protestant congregations during the Communist era (late 20th century). The establishment of an independent Croatian state and the subsequent war proved to be a significant turning point for the Croatian Protestants, although most of them had no tradition of socio-political engagement and were therefore ill-prepared for the profound changes that followed. The fostering of a common Protestant identity was to a certain extent, as the authors argue, encouraged by the signing of contracts with the Croatian government that provided a legislative framework for the existence of various Protestant denominations. The contracts also secured minimal financial support and allowed their access to the public arena. Apart from that, impulses towards a clearer articulation of their own confessional identity usually did not result in pro-active investment in the contextual expression of individual denominational identities as part of a broader Protestant identity. Furthermore, the relationship with the majority Church – the Roman Catholic Church – still presents a major challenge for many Protestant churches. Although there are examples of earnest cooperation, this ecumenical communion remains a serious challenge, especially in the light of the fact that some groups continue to maintain a very exclusivist attitude towards the majority Church. As for the divisive issues in the contemporary Croatian society, the Protestant churches either ignore them or comply uncritically with the stance of one of the polarized parties. Finally, the present condition of Protestant theological institutions shows that a non-systematic approach to their development needs to be adjusted if the existing theological potential is to be unlocked for the benefit of Protestant churches and their integration into the Croatian society.

Modern Religious Movements on Romanian Territory Can Evangelical Cults in Romania Historically be Seen as NeoProtestant?

Abstract In order to define the new religious movements on Romanian territory beginning in the 19th century, the following terms need to be explained: sect Church, Evangelical Church, and Neo-Protestant Church. First, the term ‘sect’ has negative connotations, and it is being used more and more seldom after the Communist era. Second, the term ‘Evangelical’ is currently more accepted even by historians (such as Dorin Dobrincu) but it still can be confusing because it refers to German Lutherans. Finally, the term ‘Neo-Protestant’ is problematic because it can lead to confusion about modern Lutheran Protestantism, which is called in German Neoprotestantismus. This work uses the term ‘Neo-Protestant’ as it will be shown that these cults have a historical sustainability of classical Protestantism bringing new aspects but still respecting the same frame, the same matrix.

The Limits of Film within the Limits of Theatre, in Two Examples.Spectacular identities from the Communist and present era

Using conventional procedures involves, regardless of the art form, knowing their distinctive elements, how the particularities of that art form works in its ideal parameters – can’t play a song on a brush – and, most importantly, knowing where the limit is between the experiment and the conventional product. The latter has no negative connotation – on the contrary, I believe we are sorely lacking well-made conventional products (in both theatre and film), created not necessarily after a recipe (which could be interpreted as commercially-oriented), but at least with a coherent slalom through style and aesthetics. Still, it is the experiment (and most of all the cross-disciplinary experiment) that gave birth to the arts we are discussing (theatre and film), discovering new forms of expression. In this piece, we will discuss the identities of Radu Jude and Lucian Pintilie, in their form of cinema expression in which they use all the elements specific to theatre, from the conventionality of the space to the present indication, from the formal props to the intent lighting, from the melding of specific technical elements to the spectacular editing.

Governance models of Hungarian higher education: from Humboldtian to State-controlled model

The paper focuses on the higher education evolution in Hungary from the historical perspective regarding the governance models implemented and constructed in connection with the legal provision of decision-making power within universities, between various governance mechanisms (faculty, academic committees, senates, and boards) and administrative structures. We identified four governance models during the last hundred years. In the primary stage, we track down the Humboldt model, and the German influence played a role in the institutional development. The beginning of communist era represented a reform called “de-Humboldtization” and it was the beginning of the second phase in which the Hungarian higher education reform can be identified under the socialist influence, concentrating on the formation and organisation of the Soviet higher education institutions. The subsequent stage, the neo-Humboldtian type (1993-2012), can be identified as the regaining autonomy at the higher education underneath the shifting of communism regime to democracy and market economy. However, during this era, the government continuously tried to reform university governance, which touched every time the autonomy issue. Undoubtedly, many elements of these reforms caused a slow sink of the level of autonomy. Ten years ago, started the fourth period. First, the state-controlled model (chancellor and Consistory system) and now the pseudo-private model has been introduced. These last two models are linked with intensive decreasing institutional autonomy and academic freedom at Hungarian higher education and showed that the current legislation regulates the operational and financial issues of the institutions.

Cartierul Valea Oraşului. Aspecte sociale şi urbane

This article captures some social aspects of a marginalized area of Galati: The Valea Oraşului neighborhood. In the past this area was developed, here lived many merchants who thrived through their businesses. The communist era transformed this historical area into an industrial center, but after the Revolution of December 1989, by ceasing its industrial activity, the Valea Oraşului district, it turned into a peripheral area both by the lack of development initiatives and by moving a large, marginalized population of Roma ethnicity.

The Construction of the Guatemalan Other in Andrzej Bobkowski's Letters

Abstract This article concerns the epistolary work of Andrzej Bobkowski (1913–1961), a Polish émigré writer. After leaving Poland in 1938 and staying in France during World War II, the author left Europe and lived in Guatemala from 1948 to 1961. From there, it was by means of written correspondence that he maintained contact with editors of Polish journals in exile, writers, friends, and relatives. The letters analyzed here were published in nine collections. This text focuses on a subjective image of Guatemala, an important topic in Bobkowski's correspondence, both personal and semi-official, as with Jerzy Giedroyc, the editor of the Paris-based monthly Kultura. He would describe Guatemala from the perspective of an educated white European male, brought up in the elite environment of the Second Polish Republic (1918–1939). Here Bobkowski's letters are characterized through four filters related to the identity of the author, that is, Eurocentrism, ethnocentrism, race, and favorite literature. Additionally, the article contains reflections on the change of the writer's status in Polish literature. From a peripheral author who was banned during the communist era, Bobkowski moved to the center of integrated Polish literature after 1989, gradually achieving the status of a canonical writer.

IS THE ENLIGHTENMENT WORKS’ EDITORSHIP STILL NEEDED?

The paper asks whether editing of 18th-century texts is still needed. By answering this question, she tracks the changes in editing on the example of Polish research on the Enlightenment. On the one hand, it shows how vital classical editing of the 20th century was: publishing volumes of collected works, correspondence, poetry, anthologies – types of editions whose development peaked in Poland in the communist era when cultural policy financially supported scientific editions in order to use them for ideological goals. On the other hand, the author points out how much the demand for critical editions has changed in modern times, especially in the field of humanistic themes and turns, i.e., gender studies and women’s journals, in which the author of the paper specialises (intimate women’s journals of the 18th and 19th centuries). The paper also deals with the digitisation of sources and scientific editions. The author recognises the advantages of this digitisation challenge and points to its rarely discussed limitations. The conclusion emphasises the importance of scientific anthologies and the editorship itself, which enables direct contact with the text and its more profound understanding, especially in order to understand tradition and the present day.

Culture and Institutions: Long-lasting effects of communism on risk and time preferences of individuals in Europe

Even three decades after the end of communism in Eastern Europe, there are still observable differences in financial risk and time preferences compared to Western Europe. Using data from two large-scale surveys – one including European countries (INTRA) and one for West and East Germany (SOEP) – we show that the causes of these differences are not the same: While differences in loss aversion and patience are most likely caused by deeply rooted cultural differences that date back even before communist times, other differences can be explained by experiences during the communist era and the transition processes that followed. These insights may also help to predict what differences are more likely to converge in the near future.

Maszyny Matematyczne, women, and computing: The birth of computers in the Polish communist era.

The history of computing usually focuses on achievements in Western universities and research centers and is mostly about what happened in the United States and Great Britain. However, in Eastern Europe, particularly in war-torn Poland, where there was very little state funding, many highly original hardware and software projects were initiated. The small number of publications available to us, especially those in English, led to the belief that technological progress was the result of research carried out in Western countries alone. This article aims to fill this knowledge gap by focusing on the numerous research projects initiated in Polish universities and computer industries that unfortunately turned into dead ends as the result of socialist policies. These are references that cannot be ignored, not only for a historical reconstruction of the evolution of technology but also with regard to the social effects recorded in Poland immediately after the Second World War. The communist ideology, which pursued gender equality policies after the end of the war, encouraged women to pursue education, enabling the many female students enrolled in mathematics degree courses to specialize in "Maszyny Matematyczne" (mathematical machines) and become, like men, experts in computer programming and design. As well as highlighting the role that Poland played in the nascent "computer science" and providing detailed information on what women contributed, this article will explain why the success of the Polish computer industry was limited due to the nonexistent coordination between the communist states (Comecon).

Edward Krasiński's "Overhead Sculptures": A Manifestation of Modernity

Edward Krasiński's "Overhead Sculptures":A Manifestation of Modernity Elżbieta Błotnicka-Mazur (bio) Krasiński's composition was suspended in air, it was floating by a miracle of levitation—above the grass, on which it left its red splashes, initially it moved vertically upwards, then, turning suddenly in a horizontal direction, it visibly gained a force through a length, that faded from black to white; then, after losing its continuity, it imposed itself after an interval (full of the expectation of a stroke) with its sharp, more and more red spike piercing the horizon. The creation caused me to exclaim with surprise: that is an "aerial creation," newness. When I came closer, I understood the miracle of levitation: Krasiński stretched his "spear of the atomic age" … on the thin wires strung between the trees. But the wires were invisible, the speeding spear had, in the eyes of the viewer, its own gravitational field. Julian Przyboś, "Overhead sculptures"1 Polish poet and art critic Julian Przyboś (1901–1970) drew upon interwar avant-garde ideas to apply the concept of "overhead sculptures" to the linear sculptural compositions entitled Dzidy (The Spears), by the artist Edward Krasiński (1925–2004), who presented his work at the second (1964) and third (1965) Koszalin Plein-air exhibitions in Osieki (Poland).2 The epigraph, which refers to a significant moment in Krasiński's oeuvre, captures the purpose of this article: to present the cycle of the artist's "overhead sculptures" as a manifestation of modernity. Polish modernism originated in the concepts of artists connected with the prewar group "a. r." from Łódź (Katarzyna Kobro, Władysław Strzemiński, Julian Przyboś). The political and artistic [End Page 653] situation in the post-World War II Polish People's Republic in which Krasiński lived and worked serves as a background for discussing the commonalities between Krasiński's art and ideas of interwar avant-garde art and postwar theories, thus emphasizing the idea of modernity in the title "overhead sculptures."3 There are heretofore unappreciated connections between interwar avant-garde experiments and Krasiński's works, especially his Spears compositions, which are based in the cultural reality of a postwar East European country. Krasiński was born in 1925, in Lutsk in Volhynia (today's Ukraine), to an aristocratic family. During World War II, he studied interior design and graphics at the Staatliche Kunstgewerbeschule, established by the Germans in occupied Kraków (1940–1942). From 1945 to 1948, he studied painting at the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts. In 1954, Krasiński moved to Warsaw, where he began making press illustrations. From the start, Krasiński was involved with the "galerie autorskie" environment—the independent, to a limited extent, art galleries, like Warsaw's Krzywe Koło, founded by artists and critics during the communist era.4 Following the gallery's closure in 1966, Krasiński teamed up with art critics (including Wiesław Borowski, Hanna Ptaszkowska, and Mariusz Tchorek), as well as the artists Zbigniew Gostomski, Tadeusz Kantor, and Henryk Stażewski to cofound the Foksal Gallery.5 In the 1950s, his paintings could be seen as surrealistic poetics. In the early 1960s, Krasiński began making relief and spatial painting-objects out of slats, hinges, and wire. The next stage of his artistic activity was marked by "Spears"—sculptural compositions which, exposed in an open space thanks to almost invisible wire, gave the impression of movement. Line, a leading form of expression in Krasiński's spatial "interventions," was primarily shaped with rigid materials such as wire, plastic, or wood (which the artist exchanged for soft cable coil at the end of the decade).6 At this time too, Krasiński began marking the space with blue strip—Scotch-Blue tape that appeared independently from surrounding objects. This technique gave unique conceptual form to his works and has become Krasiński's "trademark."7 It also set him against the official art supported by Polish communist authorities, for whom Krasiński's work appeared to clash with the acceptable artistic landscape. Although much has been published about culture and art in the Soviet satellite countries, important aspects regarding...

Celebrating May 1: Visual Propaganda from Different Perspectives in Communist Hungary

Celebration has been a key idea in the disciplinary fields of Mentalitätsgeschichte and anthropology: my paper aims to introduce this in the specific context of May Day parades and marches in Hungary in the 1950s and 1960s, focusing on the educational nature of the communist system. For decades, verbal and visual propaganda tried to indoctrinate students and their parents and teachers by transforming perceptions of everyday reality through cultural practices and quasi-religious rites. From the perspective of theories about political religion, statues and symbols intended for the unification of leaders and masses in ceremonial- festive surroundings were meaningful elements with both continuous and changing characteristics. I would like to analyse this kind of message associated with May 1 through photographs of official processions in Budapest, choosing a concrete place as a starting point and adding verbal sources and different dimensions to the interpretation. First, party documents, minutes, and preparations establish the basic level of my approach, showing the original (and contemporary hidden) intentions of the ruling power to organize and execute International Workers’ Day. Next, propaganda and photographs of children and students demonstrate how the main celebration of the communist era was staged in order to legitimize its acceptance and popularity. The discussion concludes with a counter-narrative compiled from reports of the US legation and archives of Radio Free Europe, presenting an anti-communist view and a construction of Western propaganda.

The relevance of the open society to Hong Kong’s fight against moral and institutional decay: Lessons for Central and Eastern Europe

The situation in Hong Kong today is not dissimilar to the moral predicaments that Central and Eastern Europe had endured during the Communist era. Then, as now, state oppression and intimidation aim not only at generating a pervasive sense of learned helplessness in society but also incentivising political opportunism. This paper begins with a thorough examination of the relevance of the open society against the background of the regime’s all-out attacks on the pro-democracy opposition and the civil society in the name national security following unprecedented protests in 2019. Civil society organisations are in retreat under the pressure of autocratic rule, but the normative appeal of the open society as a custodian for the city’s distinctive values and identity is expected to grow against the backdrop of the moral and institutional decay of the official, ‘Orwellian’, realm. It then seeks to explain why the barriers against norm entrepreneurship – individual and collective actions resisting moral decline and decay – are not insurmountable as they first appeared. Three decades after the end of Communism in Europe, the moral commitment to the open society serves as rallying point against the rise of illiberal democracies or electoral authoritarianism. In any case, autocrats are not invincible and there is nothing inevitable about the authoritarian backlash.

Inherited anti-Jewish narratives in the current disinformation media. Case study from Slovakia

This paper affords an insight into an important phenomenon related to the current worldwide increase in xenophobic behavior. In the past as well as in the present, the issue of anti-Semitism was the topic to be discussed; we note the dangers of the return and growth of populist and racist political parties and social movements while observing similar discussions today, especially in Eastern Europe (including Slovakia). They are linked to the current anti-vaccination and anti-war movements. This study had three objectives: (1) To present the critical anti-Semitic narratives that survived communism and were re-mediated after the establishment of an independent Slovakia in 1993; (2) to identify inherited mechanisms that continue to determine the forms of negative attitudes of Slovaks towards Jews; (3) to identify and analyze current narratives representing new forms of digital anti-Semitism in the current disinformation media in Slovakia. This paper employs a structured interview method with thirteen Slovak multi-disciplinary experts to research crucial inherited and current anti-Semitic narratives. Our research identified ten anti-Semitic narratives that remain in the current disinformation media. The research also points to two former mechanisms from the communist era that still influence the attitudes of Slovaks towards Jews. This also influences the nature of contemporary anti-Semitism: the generational influence, under which intolerant attitudes pass from generation to generation, and the influence of (inherited) power and economic “remorse”, accompanied by the common notion of the “exploitation” of countries (including Slovakia) by the Jewish community. Finally, four new and current narratives have been identified through structured interviews with experts, determining the nature of current digital anti-Semitism.

The Image of Africa in Contemporary Serbian Literature

While the image of Africa in Europe today is burdened with the legacy of colonialism, some countries, particularly in Eastern Europe, never had a colonial past, and so developed their own images of Africa through their varied interactions with the continent. This article explores the representation of Africa in contemporary Serbian literature, from the era of Socialist Yugoslavia to the present day, arguing that recent writing is adopting a Western, colonialist perspective that is far removed from the discourse of friendship that characterized the Communist era. An important shift is therefore taking place in the perception of Africa in contemporary Serbian culture and society, one which reveals more about the viewer than the object of their gaze.

Contemporary Decentralized Development of a Centrally Planned Metropolis: The Case of Budapest

This study examines the changes undergone by urban centers within Greater Budapest’s extension area, which was annexed to the capital of Hungary in 1950, and which is, with minor modifications, equivalent to the outer zone today. The article compares the development methods of two different political systems: state socialism (i.e., the communist regime) between 1950 and 1990, and post-socialist capitalism after 1990. Over a longer period, the urban development of Budapest has made a long but circular journey from decentralized to a decentralized–disjointed socio-spatial development system, passing through a centrally-planned communist era between 1945 and 1990. Nevertheless, closer examination of this process reveals that several paradigm shifts took place in the design methodology, which was strongly influenced by socio-economic changes. These shifts, layered upon the inherited structure, as well as the neglect or preference of different systems, caused great differences in the development histories of centers on the outskirts. Therefore, we have set up a development typology for the centers on the outskirts by summarizing the planning history at the city level. Based on how well the center was able to incorporate itself into the larger metropolis since 1950, we have distinguished the following development models: the metropolized, the transcript, the rehabilitated, and the urban village model. This typology is extended to include new urban centers that formed during state socialism (between 1950 and 1990) and post-socialist capitalism (since 1990).