Communist Poland Research Articles

Les anabases de Saint-John Perse et de Zbigniew Herbert

The Anabases of Saint-John Perse and Zbigniew Herbert This article deals with the motif of “anabasis” in the poetry of Saint-John Perse and the Polish poet Zbigniew Herbert. The former, a poet and diplomat, gave this title to a poem written in the early 1920s, before he stepped onto the stage of international politics of the interwar period. It, in a way, anticipates his professional and existential choices. Herbert’s “Anabasis” appeared in 1983 in his collection of poems entitled Raport z oblężonego miasta [Report from a Besieged City]. Although two generations and vastly different geopolitical points of origin separate the authors of these poems, both writers left their “small homelands” (Guadeloupe, Lwów), to become witnesses to history filled with socio-political events in the face of which they could not remain neutral. Saint-John Perse began his own poetic “anabasis” in 1940, as an “exile” having escaped to the USA. Zbigniew Herbert published his “Anabasis” in a time when communist Poland would, once again (following the institution of Martial Law in 1981), would confirm his “internal exile.” Personal contexts aside, the “anabases” of Perse and Herbert represent a search for the “right word” which anticipates the script of existence or which is a meditation on exile, expressing through modern poetic means the desire to recover, or constantly (re)construct, their imaginative and spiritual homelands.

Najważniejsza książka PRL. Siedem polskich grzechów głównych i spory ideowe lat sześćdziesiątych

The most important book in communist Poland. Siedem polskich grzechów głównych [The Polish Seven Deadly Sins] and the ideological disputes of the 1960s Published in 1962, Zbigniew Załuski’s book Siedem polskich grzechów głównych sparked fierce press polemics over Polish history and tradition, and had a significant impact on political life in the 1960s. It was enthusiastically received by the nationalist faction within the ruling elite, faction gathered around the minister of internal affairs Mieczysław Moczar. It reflected the inner divisions within the Polish United Workers’ Party, forcing the party leadership and Władysław Gomułka himself to act. However, it also prompted ideological revisions among people that were far from communism, people who were attracted to the ruling camp by Załuski’s argument. Siedem polskich grzechów głównych can be regarded as one of the most influential books published throughout the People’s Poland period, most likely the most important among those that referred to history. Załuski defended the tradition of armed fight for independence, of national uprisings, heroism demonstrated by Polish soldiers over the previous two centuries, and thus went far beyond the established historical canon shaped by the ruling party. He attacked the “scoffers”, that is all those who were critical about the Romantic ethos of sacrifice in the fight for the homeland. The discussion about Załuski’s oeuvre shows that even in conditions of Polish United Workers’ Party’s political monopoly and censorship genuine ideological disputes were possible, both within the ruling elite and within other influential milieux. In this Siedem polskich grzechów głównych became part of the debates over the interpretation of Polish history and model of patriotism, debates that predated People’s Poland and were continued after its demise. The dispute over the sense of Polish uprisings was very lively in the decades following the fall of the 1863 Uprising and at the beginning of the previous century; it also continues today. Załuski’s book also created an ideological matrix, as it were, that survived the fall of communism and is still alive today: a model of denouncing those who provide critical interpretations of various elements of the national tradition. In his polemical passion Załuski wrote about “apostles of anti-heroic re-education”, those with a “nihilistic attitude to the past”, who “despise their own nation”, “are ashamed of their homeland”, “turn people against Poland and Polishness”. Similar thinking structures and arguments can be found in today’s accusations of engaging in a “pedagogy of disgrace” or “pedagogy of shame”, formulated against some Polish historians, media and opinion leaders. This is yet another confirmation of the fact that many ideological disputes from communist times not only belong to a close historical period, but are part of the longue durée of Polishness.

Beyond the Victimhood Narrative: A Case Study of Unexpectedly Successful Collectivization in Communist Poland

Abstract This article is a micro-historical study of the collectivization of agriculture carried out by the communist authorities in Central and Eastern Europe after 1945. Using the example of the village of Gierczyce in the Kielce region (Central Poland), it shows under what conditions collectivization, resisted in most of the Polish countryside, was able to succeed, and it traces the long-term effects of this process on Gierczyce’s social structure and social relations. It also analyzes this rural community’s contemporary memory of the emergence and functioning of the production cooperative. Thus, it critically engages with, and questions, the “resistance paradigm” dominant in studies of collectivization. Enriched with a broader regional and national comparative context, the article is based on the analysis of archival material from central and regional archives, personal documents, and extensive field research.

The prospects and perils of Holocaust research in Communist Poland: The first twenty years of the Jewish Historical Institute in Warsaw

ABSTRACT This article analyzes the history of the Jewish Historical Institute (Żydowski Instytut Historyczny; ŻIH) from its creation in the late 1940s until the late 1960s. During this period, ŻIH was not only a documentation center but also a principal source of knowledge about the Holocaust beyond Poland and the Soviet bloc. It played a significant role in the establishment of a transnational collective memory of the Holocaust, one that transcended the Iron Curtain. Equally important in these years was its contribution to the continued existence of Jewish life in Poland after the Holocaust. In particular, the article highlights the significant role of its director, Ber Mark, who led the institute from 1949 until his death in 1966. A convinced Communist, he nevertheless remained deeply rooted in Polish Jewish culture. Under his direction, ŻIH sought to preserve its autonomy to the greatest extent possible and to maintain international contacts with scholars in Israel and Western countries.

Alcoholism in Communist Poland: How Regime and Alcohol Interact

In communist Poland, while the state took care of the basic needs of its people, there was a widespread social issue plaguing society: alcoholism. Alcoholism was an increasing issue from the period of destalinization, to the Solidarity movement and over time, sobriety became symbol of resistance under a regime which relied on the vodka industry as the most important source of domestic revenue. By analyzing the high levels of consumption, the consequences, and the response from the state, church, and union, I analyze the political nature of alcoholism in Poland. To highlight the role ideology played, I also compare the social responses and methods of treatment in state socialism, to those in Western democratic countries. From this, an image begins to emerge of how alcoholism interacted with regime and feelings of mass disenchantment. While it is yet to be seen if communist regimes directly impacted people’s drinking habits, the Polish communist government certainly allowed the health and wellness of its citizens to come second. Further research into the dynamics of alcoholism in other Eastern European communist countries such as Hungary and Czechoslovakia could further develop understanding this complicated relationship between alcohol and communism. This topic of study remains important as the intergenerational dynamics for the families who lived under this system remain; looking at alcoholism under this regime can help us understaind these ongoing social relations.

Obca: Ballady oraz inne wiersze [The other: Ballads and other poems

<i>Obca: Ballady oraz inne wiersze</i> [The other: Ballads and other poems

Instrukcja akcji propagandowej związanej z kongresem zjednoczeniowym w dniach 15–21 grudnia 1948 roku

The following paper is a critical edition of a document that established propaganda guidelines for the so-called unification congress of the workers’ movement in Poland, held on December 15 – 21, 1948. By means of a scholarly presentation of an archival record, the author shows that behind the veil of a grandiose and joyful atmosphere, accompanying the „unification” of the Polish Workers’ and Socialist Parties as well as the establishment of the Polish United Workers’ Party, the congress, as a matter of fact, was a skillfully directed event that intended to create a particular mood. The writer points out that the congress itself was an ideological mass undertaking – an utter theatre in honour of Bolesław Bierut and Józef Stalin, which formalized the totalitarian system of the dictatorial communist party. And like in a real theatre, a painstaking script was written and roles assigned. That scenario outlined all elements of the state’s life and almost all spheres of human life, which at that time were already under the reign of the totalitarian regime. Therefore this campaign, preparing for the Unification Congress is considered to be the largest and the most important in the communist Poland.

Catholic Intimacies: Negotiating Contraception in Late Communist Poland

The majority of people in Poland self‐identified as Catholic throughout the second half of the twentieth century. Despite the Polish Episcopate's unanimous rejection of contraception as immoral and sinful, a considerable proportion of Polish Catholics utilized family planning techniques and technologies explicitly banned by their institutional Church. This article uses personal narratives to show how Polish Catholics negotiated their use of Church‐authorized and Church‐banned family planning methods with their lived experiences of faith in a communist state where both abortion and contraception were legal. We explore the strategies of interpretation, relativisation, and (selective) rejection through which Catholics who self‐identified as “practising” approached birth control as a social issue and an individual practice and show how communist secular approaches to birth control contributed to extending the scope of Catholics' agency in the realm of reproductive decision making.

Bricks and Bombs versus Bullets and Batons: Protest and Regime Violence as Generational Experience in Communist Poland

This article discusses the relation between state violence and public disorder under authoritarian rule in Poland. Focusing on the major crises and protests of the communist era, it examines regime violence through a double perspective – on the one hand, the way the regime resorted to physical violence to uphold its survival and, on the other hand, as a generational experience of those who suffered from it. Despite the state's use of physical violence until 1989 becoming more rationalised, modernised and efficient, it also turned less effective over time. This evolution contributed to a decreasing risk factor for protesters vis-à-vis the state. Since the bulk of those who participated in protests and riots were young people, the focus lies on the youthful dimension of public disorder and in particular the activity and experience of then students and young workers.

Persistent Legacies of Communism, or the Ongoing Purification of Public Space in Post-1989 Poland

This article explores how Poland’s cultural landscape has been cleared of the material legacies of communism between 1989 and 2019. By studying political discourses, legal regulations and social practices aiming to rename streets and remove monuments associated with communism, it argues that the Polish de-communization project has undergone a major transformation: from a popular need expressed in a variety of decentred initiatives to a political programme revolving around one centrally organized idea. The persistence of the material legacies of communism in Poland’s cultural landscape reveals both the mobilizing potential as well as the limits of anti-communism, it demonstrates how difficult it has been to provide for a legally binding and practically effective definition of communism and it exemplifies a broader struggle over the question of who should play which role in shaping Poland’s public realm.

Polish Lace Makers: Gender, Heritage, and Identity

Polish Lace Makers: Gender, Heritage, and Identity

No End in Sight: Polish Cinema in the Late Socialist Period

No End in Sight: Polish Cinema in the Late Socialist Period

From Corsets to Communism: The Life and Times of Zofia Nałkowska; A Biography

Zofia Nałkowska was one of the most innovative prose writers of Polish literature. Her work spanned three periods: from pre-World War I Young Poland, through the Inter-war years, to post-World War II communist Poland. Her writing, some of which has been translated into English, is a valuable addition to modernist literature and deserves to be known outside of Poland.In From Corsets to Communism: The Life and Times of Zofia Nałkowska; A Biography, Jenny Robertson has undertaken a challenging task. Moving chronologically through Nałkowska's life, in successive chapters, she intertwines events from the author's life with interpretations of her various works, as well as important political, historical, social, and cultural phenomena. Robertson shows how Poland's history influenced Nałkowska's writing, from her father's socialist activities in partitioned Poland to her often criticized work as a parliamentarian during the Stalinist years. At the same time, Robertson demonstrates how important Nałkowska's personal life was for her writing. Bits and pieces from various love affairs, marriages, flirtations, and financial struggles all made their way into her works. Moreover, unexpected, sometimes quirky observations of people and things similarly resurfaced in the texts. Sometimes, the observation entered a text directly. This was the case with her anthology of short stories, Dom nad łąkami [The house by the meadows 1925]. The Nałkowski family owned a summerhouse in the countryside and, as Robertson writes, “[t]heir neighbors were simple people whom Zofia would later immortalize in her much acclaimed book, The House by the Meadows” (p. 19). At other times, the event that inspired her would be much more transposed and changed. For example, in 1907, her first husband, Leon Rygier, “seduced and made pregnant” (p. 24) a country girl who worked for the author as a servant. “Far into the future [1934], the seduced country girl would become one of the greatest characters in pre-war Polish literature: Justyna in Zofia's much acclaimed novel, Boundary” (p. 24). The connection could be even more distant. The title of Nałkowska's last novel, Węzły życia [Knots of Life, 1948], is based on an inscription on a Jewish tombstone that the author noticed as a teenager and noted in her diary (p. 215).The back and inner jackets suggest a popularizing biography written in an emotional tone. Yet, for a popularizing work, Robertson very thoroughly supports her biography with sources. She quotes from or refers to not only Nałkowska's own diaries and fictional works, but also to the writing of numerous of her contemporaries, people who knew her either in a personal capacity or as a fellow artist or both. The wealth of biographical detail will be of interest not only to the casual reader, but also to the scholar of Nałkowska's writing. In that respect, the notes are especially valuable, as they direct the reader to exact citations in primary sources, some of which, like the author's Dzienniki 1899–1954 [Diaries, 1970–2001] are voluminous.For the casual reader, unfamiliar with Polish history and/or culture, Robertson's book may be a bit of a challenge. The constant intertwining of the personal, literary, and cultural information, the constant changing of direction may require concerted effort. This is especially true of the political and cultural background, which is presented clearly, but very briefly. I am uncertain if the casual reader will be able to understand the significance of each given phenomenon for Nałkowska. One would hope that the brevity of the descriptions might inspire the reader to search for more information on Poland.Those interested in the Western suffragist era and fin-de-siècle, might find her pre-World War I novels of interest. Written in a Neo-romantic flowery style that Nałkowska later rejected, they offer daring descriptions of women's psyche and emotions, often breaking thematic taboos. As Robertson writes, “she wrote as a woman about women, penetrating deep into the female psyche and sexuality” (p. 22). Robertson further demonstrates how the author's Inter-war novels and one great play, Dom kobiet [House of women, 1930] constituted her best, most mature works, and are an important addition to late modernist psychological literature. Finally, there is the post-World War II period. Robertson herself had first encountered Nałkowska's work through her important collection of stories, Medaliony [Medallions, 1946]. Nałkowska participated in the Commission to Investigate War Crimes, interviewing numerous survivors of concentration camps. The result was a collection of chillingly matter-of-fact stories that described Nazi atrocities; a collection translated into numerous languages and today considered a classic of genocide literature.Overall, Jenny Robertson's From Corsets to Communism is a worthwhile and successful endeavor. Well-documented and written in a lively style, the book makes a convincing case for Nałkowska's innovative writing being of interest to a wide variety of readers.

Jewish Themes in the Sermons Delivered by Catholic Priests in Communist Poland (1944–1989)

Jewish Themes in the Sermons Delivered by Catholic Priests in Communist Poland (1944–1989)

The Legend of theGedaniaVoyage Through the Northwest Passage

This article analyzes a largely unknown voyage undertaken by Capitan Dariusz Bogucki in the summer of 1975 through the Northwest Passage on-board a Polish yacht called Gedania. This expedition was one of the first attempts to navigate the Arctic straits aboard a small sailing vessel and, although unsuccessful, has attained legendary status among Polish sailors. Despite a ban from the Canadian authorities, the Gedania, managed to penetrate 300 miles into the Canadian Arctic. In Resolute Bay the crew failed, however, to persuade local officials to issue a permit and was ordered to sail south immediately. During her retreat from the Arctic a debate among the Canadian public lasting several weeks began as to how a crew from communist Poland had sailed so far north without trouble, only a few years after the US tanker Manhattan had started a political crisis over Canadian sovereignty over the waters of the Northwest Passage. The aim of this article is to verify the legend of the Gedania voyage through the use of archival materials and to discover whether the reasons consent was refused to the Gedania were entirely based on practical considerations or whether they also had political dimensions.

The influence of local and national press on the comic publishing industry in the Polish People’s Republic between 1956 and 1989

ABSTRACT This article analyses the influence of the local and national press on the shape of the Polish comic publishing industry in the Polish People’s Republic (1947–1989). It discusses how the negative attitude of the authorities towards comics gradually changed, leading in the 1970s to the use of this medium both as propaganda and a didactic tool as well as an equivalent of Western popular culture, anchored in the policy of economic stabilisation in Edward Gierek’s era. We describe the main newspaper and magazine series of comics and their authors, examine the national and transnational patterns of visual narration, and show the links between ideology and entertainment. The essential part of our analyses is the political and economic factors that shaped the Polish publishing industry, especially between 1956 and 1989. The article also explores the first political and academic commentaries on comics in communist Poland and indicates the evolution of views on them – from an evil, capitalist medium to a useful (or even fashionable) mode of artistic expression. Finally, our research examines how comic books, their characters and authors from the 1970s and 1980s survived in free and democratic Polish culture. We also investigate some international careers of Polish authors.

Europeizacja polityki historycznej Polski - od ingnoracji do zrozumienia?

History is an important element of domestic and foreign policy of countries. Consistent cultivation of national myths contributes to the strengthening of national identity and the image of the state outside, and skillfully conducted historical policy fosters the building of international ties and the realization of own interests. The main assumption of the article is the recognition that EU membership was an important instrument of Poland's historical policy. The inability of communist Poland to conduct its own historical narrative at the international level contributed to the consolidation of many unfair or even false beliefs and stereotypes about Poland. Changing them is a difficult and long-term task. Undoubtedly, EU membership has opened new opportunities for Poland in this respect. The paper aims to analyse the process of Europeanization of Polish historical policy on WW2 in two dimensions: first, the internal one, i.e. to answer the question to what extent Poland's membership in the EU has influenced the internal discourse around historical policy? And second, the external one, i.e. to what extent actions taken by Poland has influenced historical awareness of the member states and the position of European institutions regarding historical issues related to WW2?

Nieosądzona i nieukarana operacyjna oraz pospolita przestępczość funkcjonariuszy Służby Bezpieczeństwa. Glosa do problemu

The apparatus of repression in People’s Poland, including the security services, employed illegalmethods also from the point of view of the contemporary law applicable to its functionaries.Unfortunately, today such activities are oft en considered justifi ed due to the so-called servicethat the security services (UB, SB) rendered for communist Poland. The article presents selectedcases of this criminal activity, which included invading the privacy of correspondence, practicingblackmail by the use of compromising materials (for example, regarding the person’s sexualpreferences), and oft en combined with intimidation, cessation of investigation proceedingsinvolving off enders, as well as tolerance of protection, nepotism, and alcoholism in the innercircles. While the legal assessment of these activities is challenging, their historical evaluationought to be easy.

Dismantling The State Farm System and its Communities in Poland During the 1990s, and its Social Consequences

This article focuses on the social consequences of the liquidation of state farms in Poland in the 1990s. The creation and operation of state-owned farms was an unprecedented experiment: state farms were a ‘laboratory’, both in the economic sphere (creating a collective economy) and in the social sphere, forming a collective community, largely isolated from much of rural society, functioning within the framework of assigned patterns of work and life. With the collapse of communism in Poland (1989) and the construction of a market economy, the existence of 1,440 state-owned agricultural enterprises (managing 18.7% of the agricultural area in Poland) was questioned. A decision was made in 1991 to liquidate state-owned farms, by virtue of a relevant Act. Their employees (about half a million of them) and their families (in total about two million people) became victims of the economic transformation, for whom the state did not provide appropriate support, leaving them to themselves. The experience of losing a job and lifestyle organized by the socialist system (especially social security) became a traumatic experience for this community. This article shows the social dimension of this political decision. It also gives a voice to former employees of these farms, who never had any proper representation and were treated as ‘people without a vote’.

Problems of Criticism of the Communist Poland’s Security Service (SB) Files as Historical Sources

Despite the passage of 20 years since the opening of the archives of the former SB, historians have not developed the principles of criticism of SB files as historical sources, which is conducive to the so-called playing with folders, and consequently the destruction of historical narrative and social life. Among researchers and publicists, an affirmative attitude towards the SB files has been created, causing their criticism to be ignored.&#x0D; Researchers ignore the requirement to separate the theoretical-ideological and rhetorical layers of SB operational files. They also neglect to study the credibility of their authors.&#x0D; Rafał Łatka gave a justification for the affirmative attitude to the SB files. It has been shown that this justification is logically erroneous, and the affirmative attitude to the SB files is contrary to the rational concept of the historical source and to the examples of the lack of credibility of these files.&#x0D; Several ways of creating questionnaires to examine the credibility of SB files were proposed. The first question that was proposed: Was the work of officers and their superiors in the field of interest to the researcher focused on efficiency or on the statistics of results? Further proposals suggest questions about the internal control of the case under investigation.&#x0D; It was justified that it is not enough to state the fact of registration of a given person by SB as a collaborator, because it is necessary to demonstrate specific cooperation.&#x0D; It was justified that the reliability of a note decreases exponentially as a function of the number of intermediaries between it and the facts.&#x0D; The need to ask about the intentions of the officers doing reports, which could be related to their professional careers, the expectations of superiors, the need to demonstrate results, etc., was indicated. The need to investigate deviations of the examined case from the ideal instructional pattern was also indicated.&#x0D; Studies of the reliability of files have their ethical aspect. Studies that may threaten good name of the persons concerned should meet the highest methodological standards and be guided by the principle of in dubio pro reo.