Communal Areas Of South Africa Research Articles

Abandoned Croplands: Drivers and Secondary Succession Trajectories under Livestock Grazing in Communal Areas of South Africa

Cropland abandonment has been happening in different parts of the world and is being driven by socio-economic, ecological, edaphic, and environmental factors. Most of the research focusing on drivers of cropland abandonment, succession trajectories, and responses to active restoration initiatives has been conducted in the republic of Nepal and regions such as Europe and America. In South Africa, the impact of cropland abandonment on household livelihoods, changes in vegetation and soil properties, and soil seed bank statuses have been conducted mainly in the Eastern Cape Province. The drivers of cropland abandonment in South Africa are like those observed in other countries, except for a few, which are country-specific such as poor support of communal farmers compared to their counterparts in the highly mechanised commercial farming sector. There is also a shift from low input cropping in the distant fields to high input cultivation in homestead gardens. Research results elsewhere suggest a woody growth suppressive effect of grazing, particularly average grazing intensities, being crucial in suppressing woody proliferation while high grazing intensities are detrimental to herbaceous species’ richness and promote woody species’ encroachment. A combination of fire and grazing alters the natural succession trajectory by promoting fire-tolerant species and arresting woody species. Similar to other countries, cropland abandonment is associated with colonisation by alien invasive species which are favoured by cropping legacies, such as altered soil levels of pH, Nitrogen, and phosphorus. Furthermore, limited moisture in semi-arid areas promotes the encroachment of indigenous woody species. Secondary succession in abandoned croplands can be manipulated for the benefit of livestock production in communal areas by introducing management strategies that will discourage encroachment by both invasive and indigenous woody species which lowers the grazing capacity. Furthermore, active restorative practices, such as reseeding with indigenous mid succession perennial grasses and legumes, will improve forage quality in abandoned croplands. Our understanding of succession trajectories under various unique disturbance regimes experienced in South Africa, such as communal grazing of abandoned croplands, compared to situations in other parts of the world is limited. Furthermore, the influence of other factors such as fire, soil fertility, and moisture needs to be understood.

Detecting and mapping the spatial distribution of Chromoleana odorata invasions in communal areas of South Africa using Sentinel-2 multispectral remotely sensed data

Alien Invasive Plants (AIPs) have been proclaimed to be a significant non-climatic driver of global change. The Siam weed (Chromoleana odorata) is highly invasive in South African rangelands, with serious environmental, agricultural and socio-economic consequences. Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of C.odorata's spatial distribution is necessary for implementing relevant mitigation and management approaches to vulnerable and invaded landscapes. Remotely sensed data offer a viable opportunity for detecting and mapping AIPs spatial extents. Hence, this study sought to compare the value of algorithms (i.e. maximum likelihood and random forest) in detecting and mapping C.odorata's spatial distribution in relation to other land use land cover classes (LULC) using the freely available Sentinel-2 multispectral image data. The findings of the study revealed that the vegetation red edge and near-infrared spectral bands of Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery (MSI) sensor were the most important spectral variables for discriminating C.odorata from other land cover classes. The random forest algorithm yielded the highest overall classification accuracy of 83%, outperforming the traditional maximum likelihood classifier (75%) in classifying C.odorata's spatial distribution. Overall, results demonstrate that the combination of freely available Sentinel-2 MSI satellite data and machine learning random forest algorithm produces the highest accuracies for detecting the spatial distribution of C.odorata, particularly in heterogeneous environments. These results could be beneficial to sustainable rangeland management and the adoption of site-specific mitigation approaches in areas invaded by C.odorata.

Genetic characterisation of non-descript cattle populations in communal areas of South Africa

Context Indigenous cattle breeds represent an important genetic resource for livelihood of communal-area inhabitants. Indigenous breeds have the ability to withstand harsh climatic conditions, can adapt genetically to poor-quality forages and are resistant to parasites and diseases. These unique traits possessed by indigenous breeds are under threat because of unrestrained crossing with exotic commercial breeds, and this can lead to total loss of a breed. Aims The study was conducted to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of South African non-descript communal beef cattle populations by using 25 microsatellite markers. Methods Unrelated and non-descript animals (n = 150) were sampled from communal areas from five (5) provinces of South Africa, namely, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu–Natal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga and the North West, with 30 samples per breed taken. Six (6) known cattle breeds (n = 180) were used as a reference population. This included Angus, Afrikaner, Bonsmara, Brahman, Drakensberger and the Nguni, with 30 samples per breed. Key results High level of genetic diversity was found across the five non-descript populations, with an average heterozygosity of 75%. The Limpopo population was found to be the most diverse population, with the highest average number of alleles (8.5) and heterozygosity (ranging between observed heterozygosity of 70% and expected heterozygosity of 79%). STRUCTURE software assigned populations (2 ≤ K ≤ 20), with the most probable cluster being at K = 7. The Eastern Cape, KwaZulu–Natal and Limpopo populations had genetic material similar to those possessed by the Nguni and Bonsmara reference populations. Conclusions Results from the study showed that most genetic differentiation occurred within populations rather than among populations, and this might be due to the fact that there is no selection for or against any specific production trait expressed in the populations. Implications The obtained information will serve as a baseline for the development and implementation of sound breeding programs that will assist in controlling the gene flow, so as to lower the possible genetic dilution of the currently available genetic material.

Effects of soil type on density of trees and nutritive value of tree leaves in selected communal areas of South Africa

This study aimed to describe the distribution and nutritive value of woody species growing in clay-loamy and red-brown sand from selected localities of North West, South Africa. Three 2.2 km transects, radiating from homesteads, which served as replicates, were established at each of four selected grazing areas. Nine 10 × 10 m homogenous vegetation units (HVU), 20 m apart, were marked in each transect. Woody plant density, height and canopy cover (CC), were recorded, and chemical properties and degradability via in vitro ruminal fermentation of harvested leaves were measured. Raisin bush (Grewia flava), Buffalo thorn (Ziziphus mucronata) and Camel thorn (Vachellia erioloba) were the common species across both soil types. Soil type influenced (P <0.05) plant density, CC, total tree equivalent (TTE) and plant height. Areas with red-brown sandy soil had higher (P <0.05) total plant density (827.7 plant/ha), CC (9.6%) and TTE (2886.4 TTE/ha) than those with clay-loamy soil. Vachellia erioloba leaves in clay-loamy soil had the highest (P <0.05) crude protein content (151.2 g/kg DM). Leaves of Searsia lancea species that were harvested from both the clay-loamy and red-brown sandy soils had the highest (P <0.05) amounts of condensed tannins (0.915 AU550/200 mg and 0.917 AU550/200 mg, respectively). Searsia lancea leaves had the lowest (P <0.05) in vitro ruminal nitrogen degradability values in both soil types. The leaves of Z. mucronata and G. flava leaves have potential as protein supplements for ruminants owing to their higher crude protein content and in vitro ruminal N degradability.
 Keywords: canopy cover, feeding value, plant height, semi-arid, species diversity, tree equivalent

Deactivation of field cultivation in communal areas of South Africa: Patterns, drivers and socio-economic and ecological consequences

Smallholder production is a significant contributor to rural livelihoods and rural economies in much of the developing world. Yet, there is evidence of increasing disengagement in some regions, including southern Africa. However, there has been little consideration of the rates and the livelihood, ecological and policy implications of such. In this paper we examine previous studies on rates of deactivation of crop fields by smallholders in the communal areas of South Africa, supported by repeat photo images and case study material. Together these various methods show that it is a widespread phenomenon occurring at variable rates. Over short periods deactivation of crop fields can be balanced through some reactivation or intensification of homegardens. But over longer periods there is a net decline in the area of fields cultivated in many areas, with corresponding increases in the area of fallow land which, through time, may undergo changes towards more natural vegetation. We review the drivers of this deactivation of field cropping, and then contemplate the possible socio-economic and ecological implications at local and national scales. We show that there are numerous and profound implications that require greater understanding and policy responses.

Bringing Rain to the Land: Rainfall Simulation as a Participatory Teaching Aid to Understanding Erosion

There is a need for science and community knowledge and resources to be combined in the mitigation and rehabilitation of land degradation, as a large portion of degraded land in South Africa is communal land. Rainfall simulation was used at Okhombe valley, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa as a tool to collect scientific data regarding the erosion rates on cattle access paths and to demonstrate erosion driving forces to the community members. The community members were able to experience erosion taking place through rainfall simulation and observe the impact of slope and basal cover change on erosion rates. Cattle access paths and rehabilitated access paths showed similar runoff rates (Figure 1), however the sediment concentration varied between the severely degraded cattle access paths and the rehabilitated land. Through the rainfall demonstration a better understanding of the driving factors in the erosion process, an understanding of why particular mitigation techniques work and where such mitigation measures would be effective were identified. With the combination of scientific techniques and community knowledge and resources a step can be taken towards sustainable land degradation mitigation and rehabilitation in the communal areas of South Africa.

Multiple strategies for resilient livelihoods in communal areas of South Africa

Livestock farming in communal areas is an activity pursued by rural households as one of a range of livelihood strategies aimed at spreading risk. The cash and non-cash benefits derived from livestock, as well as the wide range of secondary resources harvested from communal rangelands, make an important contribution to livelihood diversification and, hence, resilience. Rural development policy should therefore not focus narrowly on commercialisation of livestock production in communal areas. Rather, it should take a multifaceted approach to building livelihood resilience while providing pathways for households to escape poverty through enhancing the multiple benefits of livestock, adding value to secondary rangeland resources, and expanding the rural non-farm economy.

Production practices and constraints to sheep productivity in two ecologically different and resource-poor communal farming systems of South Africa

The objective of the current study was to determine the production practices and constraints to sheep productivity in ecologically different communal areas of South Africa. Direct observations and participatory techniques were also employed to capture data from farmers in Gaga and Sompondo communal villages. Most (70%) of sheep owners were men and were more involved in sheep flock management than adult females and youths. Mean sheep flock size per household was not significantly different between the two villages; Sompondo (18.3 ± 3.10) and Gaga (19.0 ± 3.10). There were significance negative correlations (r = -0.61 for Sompondo and Gaga, r = - 0.55; p < 0.05) between sheep flock sizes and cattle herd sizes kept per household. Shortage of feed and diseases/parasites were ranked by farmers as the most important constraints. In both villages, sheep houses were poorly constructed. Most mortalities were caused by heartwater (Ehrlichia ruminantium), gall sickness (Anaplasmosis) and footrot. Few farmers owned rams, 39% in Sompondo and 36 % in Gaga, respectively. Dohne merinos were the common breed in the communal areas. Breeding season was undefined and mating system was largely uncontrolled in the villages. Differences in agro-ecological conditions, specific social and economic conditions at household level affected sheep management practices. Key words: rams, feed shortage, flock management, household, sweetveld, sourveld.

Tick loads in cattle raised on sweet and sour rangelands in the low-input farming areas of South Africa

The objective of this study was to compare tick loads and prevalence in Nguni and non-descript cattle in the sweet (palatable throughout the year) and sour (palatable only in the rainy season) communal rangelands of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Engorged adult female ixodid ticks were collected and identified seasonally from 144 cattle raised on sweet and sour rangelands from August 2007 to April 2008. Three tick species were identified in the sweet and sour rangelands namely Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus, and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi with prevalences of 71.1%, 29.2%, and 40.2%, respectively. Hyalomma species (19.0%) occurred only in the sour rangeland. Higher tick counts were recorded in the hot-wet season than in the cool-dry season (P < 0.05). Cattle in the sweet rangeland had significantly lower tick loads than those in the sour rangeland in all the seasons except the hot-dry season. The Nguni breed had lower (P < 0.05) tick loads of R. appendiculatus in the hot-wet and post-rainy season and Hyalomma species in all seasons than the non-descript cattle. The use of a tick-resistant Nguni breed in the integrated control of ticks on cattle in the communal areas of South Africa is recommended.

Nguni cattle marketing constraints and opportunities in the communal areas of South Africa: Review

Cattle production is the most important livestock sub-sector in South Africa. It contributes about 25 - 30% to the total agricultural output per annum. However,cattle productivity is declining due to diseases and parasites prevalence, lack of feed resources, and poor breeding and marketing management. To increase sustainability and contribution of cattle in eradicating hunger and poverty in communal areas, there is need to make use of locally adapted breeds. In South Africa’s communal cattle enterprise, the Nguni breed is becoming a very important socio-economic drive for the resource-poor farmers. Nguni cattle development projects have been initiated in South Africa to improve livelihood of communal farmers. However, these projects are mainly concentrating on solving production constraints and ignoring marketing factors. This paper reviews the neglected marketing constraints and opportunities faced by beneficiaries of the Nguni cattle development program. Key words: Auction, beef, diseases, transactional costs, sustainability.

Potential for value-addition of Nguni cattle products in the communal areas of South Africa: a review

This review focuses on challenges and possible interventions to improve the value of Nguni cattle products in the communal areas of South Africa. There is a general lack of adapted genetic material suited to the needs of the resource-poor cattle producers in South Africa. Nguni cattle are well suited to the management levels of communal farmers who require disease resistant multipurpose animals with low-maintenance feed requirements and relatively high-output. Developmental efforts to reintroduce the Nguni breed initiated in most rural areas of South Africa, especially in the Eastern Cape are reviewed. The possibility of selecting Nguni cattle for specific production traits and develop them into single-purpose herds is evaluated. It is recommended that development and research programmes aimed at reintroducing the Nguni breed in the rural areas should take a holistic and participatory approach in improving the value of Nguni cattle products. Key words: Draught power, hides, meat, milk, Nguni cattle, value-addition.

Rangeland as a Common Property Resource: Contrasting Insights from Communal Areas of Central Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

This paper explores the grazing management systems in operation in communal areas of central Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, through two contrasting case studies from the region. Considerable differences in current management systems are identified and are shown to depend primarily on the degree of control that can be exercised by communities over communal grazing resources. This in turn can be related to the social and ecological heterogeneity that characterises the region and how this influences pressure on grazing resources at the local level. On the basis of this study three broad levels of grazing management system are identified in these communal areas. These are: complete lack of management with grazing taking place in an ‘open-access’ manner; grazing being controlled on a community basis and grazing taking place on private land and being controlled entirely by the landowner. Many aspects of these scenarios find reflection in struggles over common property which are taking place in other parts of Africa. Understanding the variation in these systems from both a social and ecological perspective will be fundamental in challenging previous management paradigms, and facilitating the development of effective common property institutions for grazing management systems in communal areas of South Africa.

Conceptualizing the human use of wild edible herbs for conservation in South African communal areas

The importance of wild edible herbaceous species to resource poor households in most rural economies within savannas has been little studied. This is because most of the herbs grow in impoverished species communities and lands, often referred to as ‘marginal lands’. The aim of this paper is to conceptualize how the economics of wild edible herbs to households can be used to add value to total livelihoods and conservation within traditional communal areas of South Africa. Analysis of the economics of the consumption of wild edible herbs in Thorndale (Bushbuckridge district) of the Limpopo province is presented. The majority of households consumed wild edible herbs, averaging 15.4 kg dried weight per household per year and valued at $167 per household. The herbs were mostly harvested from uncultivated areas of farms, and rangelands. There was little correlation between household characteristics and the dependence on wild herbs for food. The local people noted a decline in the availability of the species, although not much is known about attempts to cultivate them. The only reasons attributed to the decline were nutrient poor soils and insufficient rains. With this background, developing a local strategy to sustain the species through cultivation by households was found to be feasible. A multiple-use system for the herbs, their improvement and value addition towards commercialization and increased household usage may result in wider acceptance and subsequent cultivation. Species diversity will be enhanced whilst conserving the land on which they grow. This multiple use system may include species roles in soil and water conservation.

Tenure security and productivity in small‐scale agriculture in Zimbabwe: Implications for South Africa

This article tests empirically the interaction between land tenure security and agricultural productivity in small‐scale agriculture in Zimbabwe. Data for the analysis were gathered during April and August of 1995 by means of an interview survey of farmers in the small‐scale commercial sector, communal area and Model A resettlement area of Zimbabwe. Two‐stage least squares regression estimates reveal that land tenure security has a positive and significant influence on investment incentives and agricultural productivity in the sample. This result has two important implications for proposed land reforms in South .. Africa. Firstly, the result lends support to the notion that indigenous tenure institutions in communal areas of South Africa are a constraint on agricultural development. Secondly, it is clear that a national land redistribution policy must be accompanied by innovative tenure institutions which facilitate economic interaction and internalise externalities on land resettled by individuals and groups. This is particularly important in South Africa where groups of up to 300 families are being settled on commercial farms under a group ownership model.

Sociocultural constraints on sustainable cattle production in some communal areas of South Africa

For decades the problem of overstocking, generally accepted as the major cause of the degradation of natural resources in the communal farming areas of South Africa, has remained unresolved. Both documented evidence and empirical findings indicate that sociocultural factors place significant constraints on stock reduction. There has been no decrease over time in the need for cattle but cattle are kept increasingly for financial reasons. The number of cattle owned remains an important indication of status and this militates against stock reduction. The general understanding that there is ‘too little land’ rather than ‘too much stock’ indicates tons a degree of fatalism and a preference for waiting for changes in land allocation rather than accepting individual responsibility for improving the present situation.