Phacochoerus Africanus Research Articles

Forage Availability and Nutrient Quality of Common Warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) in Gassi and Haro Aba Diko Controlled Areas, Western Ethiopia

Forage Availability and Nutrient Quality of Common Warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) in Gassi and Haro Aba Diko Controlled Areas, Western Ethiopia

Tsetse Bloodmeal Analyses Incriminate the Common Warthog Phacochoerus africanus as an Important Cryptic Host of Animal Trypanosomes in Smallholder Cattle Farming Communities in Shimba Hills, Kenya.

Trypanosomes are endemic and retard cattle health in Shimba Hills, Kenya. Wildlife in the area act as reservoirs of the parasites. However, wild animal species that harbor and expose cattle to tsetse-borne trypanosomes are not well known in Shimba Hills. Using xeno-monitoring surveillance to investigate wild animal reservoirs and sources of trypanosomes in Shimba Hills, we screened 696 trypanosome-infected and uninfected tsetse flies for vertebrate DNA using multiple-gene PCR-High Resolution Melting analysis and amplicon sequencing. Results revealed that tsetse flies fed on 13 mammalian species, preferentially Phacochoerus africanus (warthogs) (17.39%, 95% CI: 14.56–20.21) and Bos taurus (cattle) (11.35%, 95% CI: 8.99–13.71). Some tsetse flies showed positive cases of bloodmeals from multiple hosts (3.45%, 95% CI: 2.09–4.81), including warthog and cattle (0.57%, 95% CI: 0.01–1.14). Importantly, tsetse flies that took bloodmeals from warthog had significant risk of infections with Trypanosoma vivax (5.79%, 95% CI: 1.57–10.00), T. congolense (7.44%, 95% CI: 2.70–12.18), and T. brucei sl (2.48%, 95% CI: −0.33–5.29). These findings implicate warthogs as important reservoirs of tsetse-borne trypanosomes affecting cattle in Shimba Hills and provide valuable epidemiological insights to underpin the parasites targeted management in Nagana vector control programs in the area.

Rickettsia lusitaniae in Ornithodoros Porcinus Ticks, Zambia

Rickettsial pathogens are amongst the emerging and re-emerging vector-borne zoonoses of public health importance. Though traditionally considered to be transmitted by ixodid ticks, the role of argasid ticks as vectors of these pathogens is increasingly being recognized. While bat-feeding (Ornithodoros faini) and chicken-feeding (Argas walkerae) argasid ticks have been shown to harbor Rickettsia pathogens in Zambia, there are currently no reports of Rickettsia infection in southern Africa from warthog-feeding (Phacochoerus africanus) soft ticks, particularly Ornithodoros moubata and Ornithodoros porcinus. Our study sought to expand on the existing knowledge on the role of soft ticks in the epidemiology of Rickettsia species through screening for Rickettsia pathogens in warthog burrow-dwelling soft ticks from two national parks in Zambia. The tick species from which Rickettsia were detected in this study were identified as Ornithodoros porcinus, and an overall minimal Rickettsia infection rate of 19.8% (32/162) was observed. All of the sequenced Rickettsia were identified as Rickettsia lusitaniae based on nucleotide sequence similarity and phylogenetic analysis of the citrate synthase (gltA) and 17kDa common antigen (htrA) genes. Utilizing all of the gltA (n = 10) and htrA (n = 12) nucleotide sequences obtained in this study, BLAST analysis showed 100% nucleotide similarity to Rickettsia lusitaniae. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all of the Zambian gltA and htrA gene sequences could be grouped with those of Rickettsia lusitaniae obtained in various parts of the world. Our data suggest that Rickettsia lusitaniae has a wider geographic and vector range, enhancing to our understanding of Rickettsia lusitaniae epidemiology in sub-Saharan Africa.

Multispecies detection and identification of African mammals in aerial imagery using convolutional neural networks

AbstractSurvey and monitoring of wildlife populations are among the key elements in nature conservation. The use of unmanned aerial vehicles and light aircrafts as aerial image acquisition systems is growing, as they are cheaper alternatives to traditional census methods. However, the manual localization and identification of species within imagery can be time‐consuming and complex. Object detection algorithms, based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs), have shown a good capacity for animal detection. Nevertheless, most of the work has focused on binary detection cases (animal vs. background). The main objective of this study is to compare three recent detection algorithms to detect and identify African mammal species based on high‐resolution aerial images. We evaluated the performance of three multi‐class CNN algorithms: Faster‐RCNN, Libra‐RCNN and RetinaNet. Six species were targeted: topis (Damaliscus lunatus jimela), buffalos (Syncerus caffer), elephants (Loxodonta africana), kobs (Kobus kob), warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) and waterbucks (Kobus ellipsiprymnus). The best model was then applied to a case study using an independent dataset. The best model was the Libra‐RCNN, with the best mean average precision (0.80 ± 0.02), the lowest degree of interspecies confusion (3.5 ± 1.4%) and the lowest false positive per true positive ratio (1.7 ± 0.2) on the test set. This model was able to detect and correctly identify 73% of all individuals (1115), find 43 individuals of species other than those targeted and detect 84 missed individuals on our independent UAV dataset, with an average processing speed of 12 s/image. This model showed better detection performance than previous studies dealing with similar habitats. It was able to differentiate six animal species in nadir aerial images. Although limitations were observed with warthog identification and individual detection in herds, this model can save time and can perform precise surveys in open savanna.

Diet preferences of common warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) in Gassi and Haro Aba Diko controlled hunting areas, Western Ethiopia

To assess feeding ecology and diet preferences of common warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus (Gmelin, 1788), the study was conducted in Gassi Controlled Area (GCHA) and in Haro Aba Diko Controlled Hunting Area (HADCHA) from May 2017 to June 2018. Diet composition of common warthog was determined using feeding quadrat and microhistological methods. From the leaf cuticle fragments observed of feces, 41 and 45 plant species were recognized as annual dietary components of common warthog in GCHA and HADCHA, respectively. Uncertainty of epidermal fragments and fine digestion, led certain forage species consumed by warthogs to be unidentified. In Gassi Controlled Hunting Area, Cynodon nlemfuensis (75.5%), Cynodon dactylon (69%), and Cyperus fischerianus (47%) had the higher relative frequency occurrence (RFO) in the feces of the animal during the wet season. In Haro Aba Diko Controlled Hunting Area, C. nlemfuensis (76.5%), C. dactylon (73.5%) and H. rufa (57.5%) were the top three forage species with higher RFO in the feces of the warthog during the dry season. During the wet season in GCHA, C. fischerianus, D. abyssinica, C. dactylon, C. nlemfuensis, Hyparrhenia rufa, A. abyssinicus, Sesbania sesban and Diplolophium africanum were identified as the staple forage species of common warthogs. In HADCHA, C. fischerianus, D. abyssinica, C. dactylon, C. nlemfuensis, H. rufa, H. hirta, S. poiretiana, A. abyssinicus, and S. sesban were identified as the staple forage species of warthogs during the wet season. In GCHAC. dactylon, C. nlemfuensis and A. abyssinicus were the top three species which showed high acceptability during the wet and dry seasons. Hyparrhenia hirta, was high acceptability during the wet season which was less acceptability during the dry season but the difference was not significant. In HADCHA C. fischerianus, D. abyssinica, C. dactylon, and C. nlemfuensis, showed high acceptability during both seasons. Therefore, common warthogs foraged on wide range of food resources of graminoids, forbs, and shrubs in the study areas. Certain staple forage species were frequently preferred, because of their compatibility with the physiology of warthogs.

Do wild suids from Ndumo Game Reserve, South Africa, play a role in the maintenance and transmission of African swine fever to domestic pigs?

Warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) and bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus) are considered as the wild reservoirs of ASF. They are both present in Ndumo Game Reserve (NGR), located in the Northern South African Province of KwaZulu on the border with Mozambique. In that area, the occurrence of tick-warthog sylvatic cycle of ASF has been suspected for years. To assess if wild suids represent a risk of ASF virus spillover to domestic pigs, wild suid abundance and incursions outside NGR boundaries were estimated using transect counts, fence patrols and camera traps. Also, the presence of Ornithodoros ticks was explored in 35 warthog burrows within NGR. In addition, blood samples were taken from 67 domestic pig farms located outside NGR to be tested for ASF antibodies. Information on interactions between domestic and wild suids and ASF occurrence was gathered using interviews with pig farmers (n=254) in the study area. In conclusion, the bushpigs and warthog's population estimates in NGR are 5 and 3-5individuals/km2 , respectively. Both species move out of the reserve regularly (15.4warthogs/day and 6.35bushpigs/day), with movements significantly increasing in the dry season. Some farmers observed warthogs and bushpigs as far as 8 and 19km from NGR, respectively, but no reports of direct wild-domestic suids interactions or ASF outbreaks. Also, no soft ticks were detected in all warthog burrows and all the pig blood samples were negative for ASF antibodies. The absence of ticks in warthog burrows, the absence of antibodies in pigs sampled, the absence of reported outbreaks, and no familiarity with ASF in the study area, suggest that a sylvatic cycle of ASF is, at present, unlikely in NGR. This conclusion must be confirmed by a larger survey of warthog burrows and monitoring potential antibodies in warthogs from NGR.

Conservation Status and Habitat Preferences of Common Warthog (Phacochoerus Africanus) in Old Oyo National Park, Nigeria

This study assessed the conservation status and habitat preference of Common warthog in Old Oyo National Park, Nigeria using direct sighting and line transect method. The abundance estimate and encounter rate of common Warthog in the study area from 2018-2019 showed that year 2018 recorded 213 individuals at an encounter rate of 0.38/km while year 2019 recorded 184 individuals at an encounter rate of 0.32/km while the mean abundance estimate of common Warthog are 4.65±0.64 and 1.71±0.48 which represents 156 and 58 individuals at encounter rate of 0.55/km and 0.20/km in the wet season and dry season of year 2018 compared to year 2019 with average abundance estimate value of 4.00±0.85 and 1.41±0.61 which represents 135 and 48 individuals at an encounter rate of 0.47/km and 0.17/km for wet and dry season respectively. The mean age structure and sex ratio of the observed warthog population during dry and wet seasons revealed that juveniles had highest mean of age structures among the populations observed across the seasons. The habitat preference of common warthog revealed that they are mostly found in mixed woodland and open savanna with 112 observation and the lowest was recorded in the outcrop vegetation and open savanna with 21 individuals.in the wet season. During the dry season, mixed woodland/open savanna and Riparian grassland had the highest sightings of 45 and 33 individuals each. The outcrop vegetation/open savanna had the lowest observation of 1 individuals only. The study also recommends that more aspect of the ecology of the animal should be studied in details and emphasis should be placed on the habitat requirements.
 Keywords: Conservation, Estimate, Status, Warthog

Using meta-barcoding tools to monitor primate meat consumption at dedicated establishments in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa

Guinea-Bissau (GB) is a regional stronghold for primate conservation. Ten primates occur in the country, including the Western chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) and two colobus monkeys (Colobus polykomos and Piliocolobus badius temminckii). Primate meat is consumed at households and bushmeat-dedicated establishments, locally named "Abafatório". Such establishments are mentioned to be common in urban areas since the 1980s and to be specialized in serving primate meat while drinking alcoholic beverages. The meat is typically cooked in a stew and eaten with bread. However, as the trade and consumption of primate meat are illegal activities, the location of Abafatório establishments and details of the trade, namely species being consumed, are usually hidden from outsiders. Here, we characterize illicit bushmeat commerce and consumption at six Abafatórios of a small town. Our team visited the establishments every week for 15 months (2015-2017) and collected data on the type and prices of meals and gathered tissue samples taken from carcasses by establishment owners. A meta-barcoding approach (cytb and 12S mitochondrial DNA regions and Illumina MiSeq next-generation sequencing technology) was used to identify tissue samples to the species level. Two types of establishments can be distinguished – “restaurants” and “snack-bars”. Restaurants are similar to the ones found by previous works in the capital city where primate meat is sold as a dish containing few pieces of stewed meat. Snack-bars are smaller and the meat is sold inexpensively and by the piece. In the present study, 249 tissue samples were identified to be from four primates (Cercopithecus campbelli, Chlorocebus sabaeus, Papio papio, and Erythrocebus patas) and four Artiodactyla (Philantomba maxwellii, Tragelaphus scriptus, Potamochoerus porcus and Phacochoerus africanus). Primates represented approximately 92% of all species consumed across establishments, and C. campbelli was the most traded species. Our work suggests that primate meat is monetarily accessible for locals in rural areas and that the trade at Abafatórios may have extensive negative consequences to primate conservation, in particular, the reduction of primates' populations in the southern part of GB. Our work quantifies and identifies the species consumed in Abafatório establishments for the first time and highlights the need to improve regulation and law enforcement in Guinea-Bissau.

Some gastrointestinal nematodes and ixodid ticks shared by several wildlife species in the Kruger National Park, South Africa.

Parasite surveys were conducted for 1–2 years in the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa on blue wildebeest, impalas, greater kudus, common warthogs and scrub hares. The host associations of some of the gastrointestinal nematode species infecting ≥60% of at least one of the five host species, were determined. These were Agriostomum gorgonis, Cooperia acutispiculum, Cooperia connochaeti, Cooperia hungi, Cooperia neitzi, Cooperioides hamiltoni, Gaigeria pachyscelis, Haemonchus bedfordi, Haemonchus krugeri, Haemonchus vegliai, Impalaia tuberculata, Longistrongylus sabie, Strongyloides papillosus, Trichostrongylus deflexus and Trichostrongylus thomasi. Although the prevalence of Trichostrongylus falculatus did not exceed 50% in any host species, it was present in all five hosts. Nematodes in the KNP range from those exhibiting strict host associations to generalists. Nematode-host associations may be determined by host feeding patterns and habitat use. Eight ixodid tick species were commonly collected from the same animals and in 2–3 year long surveys from plains zebras and helmeted guinea fowls: Amblyomma hebraeum, Amblyomma marmoreum, Hyalomma truncatum, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Rhipicephalus decoloratus, Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi, Rhipicephalus simus and Rhipicephalus zambeziensis. Host specificity was less pronounced in ixodid tick species than in nematodes and the immature stages of five tick species infested all host species examined.

ANTIBODY PREVALENCE TO AFRICAN SWINE FEVER VIRUS, MYCOBACTERIUM BOVIS, FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE VIRUS, RIFT VALLEY FEVER VIRUS, INFLUENZA A VIRUS, AND BRUCELLA AND LEPTOSPIRA SPP. IN FREE-RANGING WARTHOG (PHACOCHOERUS AFRICANUS) POPULATIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA.

The warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) can be used as a model for investigating disease transmission at the human, wildlife, and livestock interface. An omnivore and scavenger, a warthog moves freely between natural ecotypes, farmland, and human communities and is susceptible to diseases of zoonotic, agricultural, and conservation concern. A retrospective study using 100 individual serum samples collected from May 1999 to August 2016 was performed to determine antibody prevalence to seven pathogens in warthogs from five locations in northeastern South Africa. Higher prevalence of antibodies to African swine fever virus and Mycobacterium bovis were detected in warthogs from the Greater Kruger National Park ecosystem in comparison to lower prevalence of antibodies to M. bovis and no antibodies to African swine fever virus in warthogs from uMhkuze Game Reserve. Low prevalence of antibodies to foot-and-mouth disease virus, Rift Valley fever virus, and influenza A virus was detected in all locations, and no antibodies against Brucella and Leptospira spp. were detected. No statistically significant difference in antibody prevalence was found between sexes for any disease. At the univariate analysis, M. bovis seropositivity was significantly different among age categories, with 49% (35/71) of adults found positive versus 29% (4/14) of juveniles and 9% (1/11) of sub-adults (Fisher's exact test, P=0.020), and between the sampling locations (Fisher's exact test, P=0.001). The multivariate model results indicated that juvenile warthogs had lower odds of testing positive to M. bovis antibodies than adults (juveniles' odds ratio [OR]=0.17, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.02-1.0), although this result was not statistically significant at the 5% level (P=0.052). For warthogs sampled at Satara Buffalo Camp, the odds (OR=0.22, 95% CI: 0.035-0.96) of being M. bovis antibody positive were significantly lower (P=0.043) than for warthogs sampled at Skukuza. Of particular interest in this study was the detection of warthogs seropositive for influenza A virus.

Chemical Composition of Lick Soils and Functions of Soil Ingested by Common Warthogs (<i>Phacochoerus africanus</i>) in Dabena Valley Forest, Western Ethiopia

To identify chemical composition of lick soil and function of soil ingested by common warthogs (<i>Phacochoerus africanus</i>), the study was conducted in Gassi Controlled Area (GCHA); southwestern and in Haro Aba Diko Controlled Hunting Area (HADCHA) northeastern Dabena Valley Forest from May 2016 to June 2018. Top soil samples licked by common warthog were taken from 2.5 cm diameter, 20 cm deep soil cores, from five evenly spaced locations around the periphery of the central 60x60 m grid in each feeding plot. Soil samples were dried under shade for one week and then kept at 28°C until analyzed. Samples were homogenized and sieved through 2 mm mesh. The mean proportion of organic carbon in Menjiko (t= 5.21, df=1, P<0.01) and in Gimbicho (t= –4.08, df=1, P<P0.05) revealed significant variation between wet and dry seasons. The mean proportion of total nitrogen was lower in GCHA (0.153 ±0.014) and higher in HADCHA (0.206±0.014) during the dry season. Hence, they showed significant variation (F1, 14= 7.06, P < 0.05) in the amount of total nitrogen. Mean sodium concentration in salt lick, common warthog ingested varied from 0.01 ±0.001Na meq/100g (Menjiko) to 0.08±0.006 meq/100g (Dodeta) during the dry season. However, the study areas were insignificantly different (F1,14=1.63, P > 0.05). Mean potassium concentration in salt lick common warthog ranged from 0.11±0.014 meq/100g (Desa) to 0.246±0.01meq/100g (Robe) during the wet season in Dabena Valley Forest (DVF). Warthogs supplemented their forage intake by licking different mineral elements from the ground. Mineral lick also benefits the animals in regulating the state body equilibrium and defending pathogens invading the animal’s body.

Fecal microbiota transplantation from warthog to pig confirms the influence of the gut microbiota on African swine fever susceptibility

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is the causative agent of a devastating hemorrhagic disease (ASF) that affects both domestic pigs and wild boars. Conversely, ASFV circulates in a subclinical manner in African wild pigs, including warthogs, the natural reservoir for ASFV. Together with genetic differences, other factors might be involved in the differential susceptibility to ASF observed among Eurasian suids (Sus scrofa) and African warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus). Preliminary evidence obtained in our laboratory and others, seems to confirm the effect that environmental factors might have on ASF infection. Thus, domestic pigs raised in specific pathogen-free (SPF) facilities were extremely susceptible to highly attenuated ASFV strains that were innocuous to genetically identical domestic pigs grown on conventional farms. Since gut microbiota plays important roles in maintaining intestinal homeostasis, regulating immune system maturation and the functionality of the innate/adaptive immune responses, we decided to examine whether warthog fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) to domestic pigs affects host susceptibility to ASFV. The present work demonstrates that warthog FMT is not harmful for domestic weaned piglets, while it modifies their gut microbiota; and that FMT from warthogs to pigs confers partial protection against attenuated ASFV strains. Future work is needed to elucidate the protective mechanisms exerted by warthog FMT.

Woody Species Structure and Regeneration Status in Kafta Sheraro National Park Dry Forest, Tigray Region, Ethiopia

The study was conducted in Kafta Sheraro National Park (KSNP) dry woodland natural forest located in Kafta Humera and Tahitay Adiyabo weredas (districts), Western and Northwestern Zones of Tigray regional governmental state, North Ethiopia. The objective of the study was to explore the floristic composition, structure, and regeneration of woody species in the home ofLoxodonta africanaL.,Hippotragus equinus,Anthropoides virgo,Ourebia ourebi,Crocuta crocuta,Tragelaphus strepsiceros,Phacochoerus africanus, and unidentified crocodile and fish species. In the park, the vegetation ecology has not been studied up to date which is necessary for conservation. The systematic sampling technique was used to collect vegetation and human disturbance (presence and absence) data from August to December 2018. The vegetation data were collected from 161 plots each with a size of 400 m2(20 m × 20 m) for tree/shrub while subplots of size 100 m2(10 m × 10 m) and 25 m2(5 m × 5 m) for sapling and seedling, respectively, were established in the main plots. Individual tree and shrub diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥2.5 cm and height ≥ 2 m were measured using tape meter and clinometer, respectively. Diameter at breast height (DBH), frequency, density, basal area, and importance value index (IVI) were used for vegetation structure description while the density of mature trees, sapling, and seedling was used for regeneration. A total of 70 woody species (46 (65.7%) trees, 18 (25.7%) shrubs, and 6 (8.6%) tree/shrub) were identified. The total basal area and density of 79.3 ± 4.6 m2·ha−1and 466 ± 12.8 stems·ha−1, respectively, were calculated for 64 woody species. Fabaceae was the most dominant family with 16 species (22.9%) followed by Combretaceae with 8 species (11.4%). The most dominant and frequent species throughout the park wereAcacia mellifera,Combretum hartmannianum,Terminalia brownii,Balanites aegyptiaca,Dichrostachys cinerea,Acacia senegal,Acacia oerfota,Boswellia papyrifera, Ziziphus spina-christi, andAnogeissus leiocarpus. Abnormal patterns of selected woody species were dominantly identified. The regenerating status of all the woody plant species was categorized as “fair” (18.75%), “poor” (7.81%), and “none” (73.44%). There was a significant correlation between altitude, anthropogenic disturbance (grazing and fire frequency), and density of seedling, sapling, and mature trees. But there was no correlation between gold mining and regeneration population. However, there is a good initiation for the conservation of the park; still, the vegetation of the park was threatened by human-induced fire following intensive farming, gold mining, and overgrazing. Therefore, the study area was the habitat for the population of the African elephant; species with low importance value indices and lack or having few seedling and sapling stage should be prioritized for conservation, and their soil seed banks should be studied further.

Temporal evolution of bushmeat traded in High Niger National Park, Guinea, West Africa

AbstractThe High Niger National Park is one of the most important protected areas for biodiversity conservation in Guinea. This study examined the temporal evolution of the bushmeat trade in three rural markets in the Park and in the nearest urban centre, Faranah. We collected data in markets during August–November 2017 in three villages around the Mafou core area of the Park and in Faranah, and compared these data with equivalent published data from the same rural areas in 2001 and 2011 and from Faranah in 1994, 1995, 1996 and 2011. Across all study periods, mammals predominated in the bushmeat trade. In rural markets we noted a marked increase in the number of carcasses and biomass offered for sale from 2001 onwards, whereas in Faranah there were no differences over time other than a peak in 1996. Overall, there was an increase in the sale of smaller sized species (&lt; 10 kg), and a marked increase in the sale of species that forage on crops, including the green monkey Chlorocebus sabaeus and warthog Phacochoerus africanus, in spite of religious taboos against the consumption of primates and Suidae. Green monkeys were not sold in markets during the 1990s but were the dominant species in Faranah in 2011 and 2017. Our findings suggest a marked shift in traded species, associated with crop protection by farmers and economic incentives to kill and trade crop-foraging species. This study highlights the value of a longitudinal perspective for investigating the dynamic relationship between local livelihoods and biodiversity conservation.

Human–wildlife conflict and coexistence: a case study from Senkele Swayne's Hartebeest Sanctuary in Ethiopia

Human–wildlife conflict presents major challenges to both wildlife managers and rural livelihoods. Here, we investigated human–wildlife conflict in and around Senkele Swayne's Hartebeest Sanctuary (SSHS). We estimated the densities of wild animals within SSHS and conducted questionnaire interviews about livestock predation and crop raiding patterns with individuals in 378 households occurring &lt;3000 m outside the Sanctuary's borders. Respondents reported that hyenasCrocuta crocutaand African wolvesCanis anthuswere the only livestock predators and were responsible for combined losses of ∼ 10% (29 207 USD) of their livestock over a three‐year period. Hyenas predated cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys and horses, whereas African wolves targeted only goats and sheep. Hyena predation occurred both inside and outside SSHS, whereas African wolf predation occurred mainly near the inside periphery of the sanctuary. Most (58%) of the respondents experienced crop raiding of their farms by Swayne's hartebeestAlcelaphus buselaphus swaynei, warthogsPhacochoerus africanusand/or crested porcupinesHystrix cristata. Nearly two‐thirds (64%) of the crop raiding occurred 1–1500 m from the sanctuary. Potatoes and maize were the most commonly raided crops. Local communities used guarding, patrolling, loud noises, smoky fires, flashes of light, fences and trenches as deterrence methods. Of the crop raiding species, only Swayne's hartebeests were regarded positively, while warthogs and crusted porcupines were viewed negatively by respondents. We conclude that although SSHS is of critical conservation value to the Swayne's hartebeest, the surrounding communities endure significant livestock predation and crop raiding by wild animals sheltered in the sanctuary. The survival of this relict population of Swayne's hartebeest in the sanctuary remains at risk unless the human–wildlife conflict in surrounding areas is resolved. This calls for site‐specific measures in consultation with the local community.

Detection of African swine fever virus genotype XV in a sylvatic cycle in Saadani National Park, Tanzania.

African swine fever (ASF) is a severe haemorrhagic disease of domestic pigs caused by ASF virus (ASFV). ASFV is transmitted by soft ticks (Ornithodoros moubata complex group) and by direct transmission. In Africa, ASF is maintained in transmission cycles of asymptomatic infection involving wild suids, mainly warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus). ASF outbreaks have been reported in many parts of Tanzania; however, active surveillance has been limited to pig farms in a few geographical locations. There is an information gap on whether and where the sylvatic cycle may occur independently of domestic pigs. To explore the existence of a sylvatic cycle in Saadani National Park in Tanzania, blood and serum samples were collected from 19 warthogs selected using convenience sampling along vehicle‐accessible transects within the national park. The ticks were sampled from warthog burrows. Blood samples and ticks were subjected to ASFV molecular diagnosis (PCR) and genotyping, and warthog sera were subjected to serological (indirect ELISA) testing for ASFV antibody detection. All warthog blood samples were PCR‐negative, but 16/19 (84%) of the warthog sera were seropositive by ELISA confirming exposure of warthogs to ASFV. Of the ticks sampled, 20/111 (18%) were positive for ASFV by conventional PCR. Sequencing of the p72 virus gene fragments showed that ASF viruses detected in ticks belonged to genotype XV. The results confirm the existence of a sylvatic cycle of ASFV in Saadani National Park, Tanzania, that involves ticks and warthogs independent of domestic pigs. Our findings suggest that genotype XV previously reported in 2008 in Tanzania is likely to be widely distributed and involved in both wild and domestic infection cycles. Whole‐genome sequencing and analysis of the ASFV genotype XV circulating in Tanzania is recommended to determine the phylogeny of the viruses.

Genome Sequences of Three African Swine Fever Viruses of Genotypes IV and XX from Zaire and South Africa, Isolated from a Domestic Pig (Sus scrofa domesticus), a Warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), and a European Wild Boar (Sus scrofa).

We report here the genome sequences of three African swine fever virus isolates obtained from a domestic pig (Zaire [Zaire]), a warthog (RSA/W1/1999 [South Africa]), and a European wild boar (RSA/2/2004 [South Africa]) belonging to genotypes IV, XX, and XX, respectively. This report increases the number of genotype XX, wild boar, and warthog reference sequences available.

Dietary partitioning of three large carnivores in Majete Wildlife Reserve, Malawi

AbstractBetween 2011 and 2012, the carnivore guild in Majete Wildlife Reserve (MWR), Malawi, was restored following the reintroduction of lion (Panthera leo) and leopard (Panthera pardus). The aim of this study was to describe and compare the diet of lion, leopard and resident spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) using scat analysis. Lions and spotted hyaenas displayed the greatest dietary overlap (Oab = 0.88) and selected mainly medium‐ to large‐bodied prey species. Lions had a mean preferred prey weight of 120.33 ± 42.14 kg (SE), with warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) making up 60.64% of relative biomass consumed. Spotted hyaenas had a mean preferred prey weight of 102.40 ± 41.69 kg and had a more generalised diet (Ba = 0.46) compared to lions (Ba = 0.36). In contrast, leopards occupied a dietary niche substantially lower than that of lions and spotted hyaenas, selecting relatively smaller prey with a mean preferred prey weight of 27.50 ± 6.74 kg. Our results suggest that coexistence between the resident hyaena and reintroduced lion and leopard in MWR is facilitated by dietary partitioning. We advise long‐term monitoring of reintroduced carnivores in small, enclosed reserves to assess their impacts on predator and prey populations.

Intra-tooth stable isotope profiles in warthog canines and third molars: Implications for paleoenvironmental reconstructions

Intra-tooth stable isotope variations have been used to interpret seasonality and aridity in paleoenvironmental reconstructions of paleontological and archeological sites. However, most intra-tooth datasets only permit qualitative interpretations of seasonality, because the measured signal is attenuated due to the duration of enamel mineralization process and sampling geometry. The common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) is an ideal organism to investigate stable isotope variation in enamel. Their canines grow continuously through the life of the individual and are therefore excellent candidates for mathematical modeling of seasonal signals and of signal attenuation; further, their isotope profiles (a series of isotope measurements) can be compared to isotope profiles of third molars (M3) to provide insights into environmental reconstructions. We first obtained paired intra-tooth enamel samples from ever-growing canines and hypsodont M3s of two extant common warthog specimens from Laikipia, Kenya. Second, from a different set of specimens, we collected data on enamel growth patterns and geometry using histological thin sections and transmitted light microscopy, and enamel mineralization parameters using micro-CT scans in each tooth type. Third, we reconstructed the timeline of unattenuated seasonal δ18O signal from canine enamel using growth rate estimates and the inverse model of Passey et al. (2005). Our results demonstrate that canines, which capture ~1.5 years of time, exhibit near-constant growth rates and simple enamel maturation geometry, whereas M3s, which also represent ~1.5 years of time, exhibit linearly decreasing growth rates and more complex maturation patterns. We compare the timelines of unattenuated seasonal δ18O signal and measured M3 profiles and find an average signal reduction of ~50% in the M3s, providing interpretations of the duration of seasonal cycles that are consistent 75% of the time. We conclude that warthog canines are well suited for the inverse model approach, and we established the model parameters for the forward and inverse methods. Timeline reconstructions based on M3 histology are promising for investigating the pattern of rainfall seasonality in the past. Finally, we found an unexpected carbon isotopic spacing of ~2‰ between canine and M3 enamel, which suggests caution in interpreting δ13C results from suid canine or molar enamel alone.

Comparative Pathology and Pathogenesis of African Swine Fever Infection in Swine.

African Swine Fever (ASF) is a viral disease that affects animals of the Suidae family, and soft ticks from the genus Ornithodoros can also be infected by the ASF virus (ASFV). The disease was first described in Africa at the beginning of the twentieth century as an acute disease characterized by high mortality and fatal hemorrhages. ASF has caused outbreaks in numerous countries and it continues to be devastating nowadays for the porcine sector in those countries affected, and a massive threat for those free of the disease. ASF can follow clinical courses from peracute to chronic in domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) depending on a variety of factors, including the immune status of the animals and the virulence of the ASFV strain. The key features of the pathogenesis of the disease in domestic swine are a) a severe lymphoid depletion including lymphopenia and a state of immunodeficiency, and b) hemorrhages. However, African wild swine like bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus), red river hogs (Potamochoerus porcus), and warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) can be infected by ASFV showing no clinical signs of disease and acting as natural reservoir hosts. In this article we review the key features of the gross and microscopic pathology together with a description of the pathogenesis of ASFV infection in domestic pigs following the different clinical courses. The pathogenesis of ASF in wild and domestic swine is also described, what can provide important information for the design of control strategies, such as vaccines.