Phacochoerus Africanus Research Articles

Effects of human–wildlife conflict on local people's livelihoods and wildlife conservation in and around Alitash National Park, northwest Ethiopia

Human–wildlife conflict has become one of the fundamental aspects of wildlife management. It threatens both wildlife and human welfare. People have injured, abused, and killed wildlife in response to perceived and/or actual damage from wildlife. Such negative interactions are common in adjacent protected areas (PAs) where people and wildlife share the same resources. However, the local contexts of the conflict around the most newly established PAs remain unaddressed. Thus, the aim of this study was to assess the effects of human–wildlife conflict on local people's livelihoods and wildlife conservation in and around Alitash National Park, Ethiopia. The data were collected by interviewing 198 households from 11 villages and conducting 3 focus group discussions and 12 key informant interviews. The survey questions were designed to understand the occurrence of wildlife damage, species involved, losses incurred, and local people's perception and reaction. The results revealed that 59.6% of the surveyed households encountered at least a single type of wildlife‐caused damage. Crop damage was the most prevalent, encountered by more than half (54%) of the households, of which 34.4 and 19.6% lost at most 25 and 75% of their crop fields, respectively. Common warthog, African porcupines, and common baboon were the top‐ranked wildlife species involved in crop‐raiding. The livestock loss from 2016 to 2020 was 287.89 tropical livestock units, which were shared by 47.5% of the respondents. Human attacks were rare, although 18 attacks by lion, spotted hyena, and leopard were reported by the study participants. The responses of the victims were negative and full of resentment to the wildlife. This undermines conservation efforts and the socio‐economic welfare of the local people. Thus, providing alternative livelihood opportunities and creating a context‐based conservation scheme along with continuous conservation education would help to reduce the negative effect of human–wildlife conflict on both wildlife and people.

A comprehensive atlas of nuclear sequences of mitochondrial origin (NUMT) inserted into the pig genome

BackgroundThe integration of nuclear mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) into the mammalian genomes is an ongoing, yet rare evolutionary process that produces nuclear sequences of mitochondrial origin (NUMT). In this study, we identified and analysed NUMT inserted into the pig (Sus scrofa) genome and in the genomes of a few other Suinae species. First, we constructed a comparative distribution map of NUMT in the Sscrofa11.1 reference genome and in 22 other assembled S. scrofa genomes (from Asian and European pig breeds and populations), as well as the assembled genomes of the Visayan warty pig (Sus cebifrons) and warthog (Phacochoerus africanus). We then analysed a total of 485 whole genome sequencing datasets, from different breeds, populations, or Sus species, to discover polymorphic NUMT (inserted/deleted in the pig genome). The insertion age was inferred based on the presence or absence of orthologous NUMT in the genomes of different species, taking into account their evolutionary divergence. Additionally, the age of the NUMT was calculated based on sequence degradation compared to the authentic mtDNA sequence. We also validated a selected set of representative NUMT via PCR amplification.ResultsWe have constructed an atlas of 418 NUMT regions, 70 of which were not present in any assembled genomes. We identified ancient NUMT regions (older than 55 million years ago, Mya) and NUMT that appeared at different time points along the Suinae evolutionary lineage. We identified very recent polymorphic NUMT (private to S. scrofa, with < 1 Mya), and more ancient polymorphic NUMT (3.5–10 Mya) present in various Sus species. These latest polymorphic NUMT regions, which segregate in European and Asian pig breeds and populations, are likely the results of interspecies admixture within the Sus genus.ConclusionsThis study provided a first comprehensive analysis of NUMT present in the Sus scrofa genome, comparing them to NUMT found in other species within the order Cetartiodactyla. The NUMT-based evolutionary window that we reconstructed from NUMT integration ages could be useful to better understand the micro-evolutionary events that shaped the modern pig genome and enriched the genetic diversity of this species.

Epidemiology and ecology of the sylvatic cycle of African Swine Fever Virus in Kenya

African Swine Fever (ASF) is caused by a DNA virus (AFSV) maintained and transmitted by the Argasid ticks. The re-emergence of the disease in Africa coupled with its rapid spread globally is a threat to the pig industry, food security and livelihoods. The ecology and epidemiology of the ASFV sylvatic cycle, especially in the face of changing land use and land cover, further compounds the menace and impacts of this disease in Kenya. The study aimed to determine the occurrence and distribution of ASFV seroprevalence in warthog populations, the tick vectors and extent of tick infestation of warthog burrows, and the genotypes of ASFV in soft ticks in Kenya. Warthogs from different parts of Kenya were captured and venous blood was centrifuged to harvest sera. Warthog burrows were examined for their conditions and to extract ticks. Sera were analyzed for antibodies against ASFV using a commercial ELISA kit coated with p32 ASFV recombinant protein. Ticks were pooled, DNA extracted and the p72 gene of the ASFV was amplified by qPCR and conventional PCR. The overall seroprevalence of ASFV in warthogs was 87.5 %. A total of 228 warthog burrows were examined and 2154 argasid ticks were extracted from the burrows. Tick pools from Kigio Farm and Lewa Wildlife Conservancies were ASFV-positive by qPCR and conventional PCR. ASFV was further confirmed by the Twist Comprehensive Viral Research Panel (TCVRP), which also identified the argasid ticks as Ornithodoros porcinus. The ticks were infected with virus genotype IX, and their occurrence overlaps with regions of previous ASF outbreaks in domestic pigs. Further, Viruses that could be tick endosymbionts/commensals or due to bloodmeal were detected in ticks by TCVRP; Porcine type-C oncovirus; Pandoravirus neocaledonia; Choristoneura fumiferana granulovirus; Enterobacteria phage p7; Leporid herpesvirus 4 isolate; 5; Human Lymphotropic virus; Human herpesvirus 5. In conclusion, our results suggest that infected Ornithodoros spp. seems to have a rich virome, which has not been explored but could be exploited to inform ASF control in Kenya. Further, the ecology of Ornithodoros spp. and burrow-use dynamics are complex and more studies are needed to understand these dynamics, specifically in the spread of ASFV at the interface of wild and domestic pigs. Further, our results provide evidence of genotype IX ASFV sylvatic cycle which through O. porcinus tick transmission has resulted in high exposure of adult common warthogs. Finally, the co-circulation of ASFV genotype IX in the same location with past ASF outbreaks in domestic pigs and presently in ticks brings to focus the role of the interface and ticks on virus transmission to pigs and warthogs.

Human-wild mammal interaction and the local people’s attitudes towards the mammals in Gara Bilita (Belete Gera) forest, South-West Ethiopia

ABSTRACT The study investigated human-wild mammal interactions and the attitudes of the local people in southwest Ethiopia. Systematic random sampling techniques were used to select villages and respondents. Data was gathered through a questionnaire (open- and closed-ended questions). A total of 130 households from three krebeles were chosen (Sebeka Debiye = 27, Atiro Gefere = 54, and Sombo Deru = 49). Crop damage was the main impact from wild animals. The major mammals responsible for the crop damage were Papio anubis, Cercopithecus aethiops, Sus scrofa, Phacochoerus africanus, and Hystrix cristata, respectively. The identified predators were Crocuta crocuta, Panthera pardus, Leptailurus serval, Panthera leo, and Papio anubis. Habitat disturbance, agricultural expansion, and deforestation were the suspected causes of the damage. Local farmers used guards, scarecrows, chasing, and smoking to prevent crop raiders. The implementation of community-based conservation strategies and practical management plans for the coexistence of wild mammals and people is required.

The Transmission of Animal African Trypanosomiasis in Two Districts in the Forest Zone of Ghana.

Animal African trypanosomiasis, also known as nagana, is caused by Trypanosoma species, which cause significant clinical diseases and lead to losses in animal production. We carried out a cross-sectional survey to investigate the composition of vectors and parasite diversity in two districts in the eastern region of Ghana where pigs and cattle were exposed to tsetse bites. We performed cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify tsetse species and internal transcribed spacer 1 PCR to identify Trypanosoma species. Also, we investigated the source of tsetse blood meal based on mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequence analysis. A total of 229 tsetse, 65 pigs, and 20 cattle were investigated for trypanosomes. An overall vector density of 4.3 tsetse/trap/day was observed. A trypanosome prevalence of 58.9% (95% CI = 52.5-65.1%), 46.2% (95% CI = 34.6-58.1%), and 0.0% (95% CI = 0.0-16.1%) in tsetse, pigs, and cattle, respectively, was detected. Trypanosoma congolense was predominant, with a prevalence of 33.3% (95% CI = 73.3-86.5%) in tsetse. There was evidence of multiple infections in tsetse and pigs. Approximately 39% of the tsetse were positive for multiple infections of T. congolense and Trypanosoma simiae. Parasite prevalence in pigs across the communities was high, with significant differences associated between locations (χ2 = 28.06, 95% CI = 0.05-0.81, P = 0.0009). Tsetse blood meal analysis revealed feeding on domestic Sus scrofa domesticus (pigs) and Phacochoerus africanus (warthogs). Infective tsetse may transmit trypanosomes to livestock and humans in the communities studied.

A chromosome-level genome of Chenghua pig provides new insights into the domestication and local adaptation of pigs

As a country with abundant genetic resources of pigs, the domestication history of pigs in China and the adaptive evolution of Chinese pig breeds at different latitudes have rarely been elucidated at the genome-wide level. To fill this gap, we first assembled a high-quality chromosome-level genome of the Chenghua pig and used it as a benchmark to analyse the genomes of 272 samples from three genera of three continents. The divergence of the three species belonging to three genera, Phacochoerus africanus, Potamochoerus porcus, and Sus scrofa, was assessed. The introgression of pig breeds redefined that the migration routes were basically from southern China to central and southwestern China, then spread to eastern China, arrived in northern China, and finally reached Europe. The domestication of pigs in China occurred ∼12,000 years ago, earlier than the available Chinese archaeological domestication evidence. In addition, FBN1 and NR6A1 were identified in our study as candidate genes related to extreme skin thickness differences in Eurasian pig breeds and adaptive evolution at different latitudes in Chinese pig breeds, respectively. Our study provides a new resource for the pig genomic pool and refines our understanding of pig genetic diversity, domestication, migration, and adaptive evolution at different latitudes.

The utility of Global Positioning System collars in inventorying the diet of lions and its shifts following an anthrax outbreak

AbstractLions (Panthera leo) are a keystone species of many wildlife areas and, as such, understanding their dietary ecology is important for holistic wildlife management. Knowledge of lion feeding ecology enables researchers and wildlife managers to better understand predator–prey dynamics and ecological limits governing their local contexts. Where kill sites can be physically located in the field, they can provide important baseline information on lion diet. In this study, Global Positioning System (GPS) collar data were used together with field observations to investigate the dietary breadth of lions at Malilangwe Wildlife Reserve, Zimbabwe. Results showed that lions in our study had a moderately specialised diet with zebra (Equus quagga) constituting the largest proportion of prey species consumed. A massive anthrax outbreak occurred during the study, drastically reducing numbers of several prey species, and this provided an opportunity to test possible shifts in lion diet in response to changes in prey abundance. Prey species selection before the anthrax outbreak was significantly different to the period after the outbreak, indicating a shift in diet post‐outbreak. Notable increases were observed in kill rates of species that were not severely affected by anthrax, namely warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), zebra, wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and eland (Taurotragus oryx). Quantifying lion dietary requirements is important for assessing the ecological and economic impacts they have on prey populations. In addition to space‐use ecology, this study shows that GPS collar data can facilitate diet investigation in large carnivores thereby providing useful information for ecological management.

Uncovering Evolutionary Adaptations in Common Warthogs through Genomic Analyses.

In the Suidae family, warthogs show significant survival adaptability and trait specificity. This study offers a comparative genomic analysis between the warthog and other Suidae species, including the Luchuan pig, Duroc pig, and Red River hog. By integrating the four genomes with sequences from the other four species, we identified 8868 single-copy orthologous genes. Based on 8868 orthologous protein sequences, phylogenetic assessments highlighted divergence timelines and unique evolutionary branches within suid species. Warthogs exist on different evolutionary branches compared to DRCs and LCs, with a divergence time preceding that of DRC and LC. Contraction and expansion analyses of warthog gene families have been conducted to elucidate the mechanisms of their evolutionary adaptations. Using GO, KEGG, and MGI databases, warthogs showed a preference for expansion in sensory genes and contraction in metabolic genes, underscoring phenotypic diversity and adaptive evolution direction. Associating genes with the QTLdb-pigSS11 database revealed links between gene families and immunity traits. The overlap of olfactory genes in immune-related QTL regions highlighted their importance in evolutionary adaptations. This work highlights the unique evolutionary strategies and adaptive mechanisms of warthogs, guiding future research into the distinct adaptability and disease resistance in pigs, particularly focusing on traits such as resistance to African Swine Fever Virus.

Ungulate co-occurrence in a landscape of antagonisms

Protected areas largely now exist as coupled natural-human ecosystems where human activities are increasingly forcing wildlife to adjust behaviors. For many ungulate species that rely on protected areas for their persistence, they must balance these anthropogenic pressures amid natural regulators. Here, we investigated the pressures exerted from humans and livestock, apex predators, and within guild competitors on ungulate co-occurrence patterns in a fragile protected area complex in West Africa. Specifically, we used multi-species occupancy modeling to quantify co-occurrence among four ungulates (Tragelaphus scriptus, Redunca redunca, Kobus kob, Phacochoerus africanus) and applied structural equation models to discern the relative contributions of pressures on co-occurrence patterns. We observed a strong spatial gradient across with higher co-occurrence in the wetter western portion of our ~13,000 km2 study area. Co-occurrence patterns among ungulate dyads ranged from 0.15 to 0.49 with the smallest body sized pair showing highest levels of sympatry, warthog and reedbuck. We found that anthropogenic pressures, namely cattle had the greatest effect in reducing sympatry among wild ungulates more strongly than the presence of African lions that also exhibited negative effects. Humans, hyenas, and competitors showed positive effects on ungulate co-occurrence. In a region of the world ongoing rapid socio-ecological change with increasing threats from climate and environmental instability, protected areas in West Africa represent a major safeguard for wildlife and human livelihoods alike. Our findings highlight the need for effective interventions that focus on large carnivore conservation, habitat restoration, and containment of livestock grazing to promote the coexistence of biodiversity and socio-economic goals within the region.

Nestedness and beta diversity of gastrointestinal helminth communities in common warthogs, Phacochoerus africanus (Suidae), at 2 localities in South Africa.

Few studies have investigated the ecological interactions between wild species of Suidae and their parasites, leaving our knowledge concerning this host–parasite system fragmented. In the present study, we applied network studies to analyse community nestedness in helminth assemblages of common warthogs, Phacochoerus africanus (Gmelin) (Suidae). Helminth data were compiled from 95 warthogs, including young and adult males and females, from 2 different conservation areas in Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces, South Africa, collected monthly over a period of 1 year each. The aim was to study the effect of host sex, age and season of sampling on the structure of helminth infracommunities harboured by the warthogs and to search for non-random structural patterns in the warthog–helminth interaction networks. Furthermore, we investigated the influence of a warthog's age, sex and season of sampling on beta diversity and dark diversity of their helminth infracommunities. Lastly, we asked whether the effects of host sex, age and sampling season on helminth communities differed between the 2 localities. We found that helminth communities of warthogs were nested and host–parasite interactions were influenced by all 3 factors as well as combinations thereof. However, the resulting patterns differed at the 2 localities, indicating that local environmental processes are important drivers of community structure.

Comparative Genomic Analysis of Warthog and Sus Scrofa Identifies Adaptive Genes Associated with African Swine Fever.

As warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) have innate immunity against African swine fever (ASF), it is critical to understand the evolutionary novelty of warthogs to explain their specific ASF resistance. Here, we present two completed new genomes of one warthog and one Kenyan domestic pig as fundamental genomic references to elucidate the genetic mechanisms of ASF tolerance. Multiple genomic variations, including gene losses, independent contraction, and the expansion of specific gene families, likely molded the warthog genome to adapt to the environment. Importantly, the analysis of the presence and absence of genomic sequences revealed that the DNA sequence of the warthog genome had an absence of the gene lactate dehydrogenase B (LDHB) on chromosome 2 compared with the reference genome. The overexpression and siRNA of LDHB inhibited the replication of the African swine fever virus. Combined with large-scale sequencing data from 42 pigs worldwide, the contraction and expansion of tripartite motif-containing (TRIM) gene families revealed that TRIM family genes in the warthog genome are potentially responsible for its tolerance to ASF. Our results will help improve the understanding of genetic resistance to ASF in pigs.

The Soft Tick Ornithodoros moubata and Its Role in the Epidemiology of African Swine Fever in Central Malawi.

African swine fever is a viral hemorrhagic disease of pigs (Sus scrofa) caused by a double-stranded DNA virus, African swine fever virus (ASFV). With up to 100% mortality in pigs and no vaccine, the socioeconomic impacts of this disease are immense. In sub-Saharan Africa, warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) are the original vertebrate host for the virus, which is transmitted among wild suids via the soft tick Ornithodoros moubata. In Malawi, O. moubata is thought to be widely distributed, with the potential to spread ASFV beyond its historical enzootic zone in the Central Region. We surveyed 76 domestic pig farms, 18 active warthog burrows, and three bushpigs (Potamochoerus larvatus) resting sites for O. moubata in the Central Region of Malawi, and tested the ticks for ASFV using PCR. We found a limited distribution for O. moubata: 75 ticks were discovered at a single farm in the Mchinji District. Eleven percent of these ticks were ASFV positive. This suggests that wildlife and O. moubata play a limited role in the epidemiology of ASF in Malawi; thus, other factors for disease spread, such as fomites and pig-to-pig infection, need to be considered.

Bloodmeal host identities among sympatric Glossina austeni and Glossina pallidipes tsetse flies in Shimba Hills National Reserve, Kwale, Kenya.

Odor from preferred/non-preferred tsetse fly vertebrate hosts have been exploited in R&D of attractants/repellents of the fly for human and livestock protection. Odors from vertebrate hosts of Glossina austeni and Glossina pallidipes tsetse flies can facilitate formulation of novel attractants effective against G. austeni or improvement of existing attractant blends for G. pallidipes. We compared vertebrate blood meal sources of both fly species at Shimba Hills National Reserve, Kenya, to establish putative preferred host of either species, hence potential source of G. austeni or G. pallidipes specific odors. We trapped sympatric adult flies in 2021 and 2022 using NGU traps/sticky panels baited with POCA, collected their blood meals and characterize the meals using HRM vertebrate 16S rRNA- PCR (for host identification), and compared host profiles using GLM and Fisher's exact tests. We collected 168 and 62 sympatric G. pallidipes and G. austeni with bloodmeal, respectively in 2021 and, 230 and 142 respectively in 2022. In 2021, we identified putative hosts of 65.48 and 69.35 % of the G. pallidipes and G. austeni respectively and 82.61 and 80.28%, respectively in 2022. In 2021, we detected harnessed bushbuck, buffalo, common warthog and cattle putative host bloodmeals, and additionally bushpig and suni antelope bloodmeals in 2022. Putative vertebrate bloodmeal sources were significantly different by tsetse fly species (χ2(1, N=457) = 43.215, p < 0.001) and sampling year (χ2(1, N=457) = 8.044, p = 0.005). Frequency of common warthog bloodmeals was higher in G. pallidipes (65.79 %) than G. austeni (38.60%), and that of suni antelope and harnessed bushbuck putative bloodmeals higher in G. austeni (21.05-28.07%) than in G. pallidipes (6.84 - 17.37%) in 2022. There was an apparent change in putative feeding preference/host choices in both fly species between 2021 and 2022. Host bloodmeals in G. pallidipes or G. austeni predominantly from putative harnessed bushbuck, suni antelope or common warthog reveal these vertebrates with potential odors that can be harnessed and formulated into appropriate attractants for respective species and integrated into routine control regiment for G. pallidipes and/or G. austeni.

African Suid Genomes Provide Insights into the Local Adaptation to Diverse African Environments.

African wild suids consist of several endemic species that represent ancient members of the family Suidae and have colonized diverse habitats on the African continent. However, limited genomic resources for African wild suids hinder our understanding of their evolution and genetic diversity. In this study, we assembled high-quality genomes of a common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), a red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus), as well as an East Asian Diannan small-ear pig (Sus scrofa). Phylogenetic analysis showed that common warthog and red river hog diverged from their common ancestor around the Miocene/Pliocene boundary, putatively predating their entry into Africa. We detected species-specific selective signals associated with sensory perception and interferon signaling pathways in common warthog and red river hog, respectively, which contributed to their local adaptation to savannah and tropical rainforest environments, respectively. The structural variation and evolving signals in genes involved in T-cell immunity, viral infection, and lymphoid development were identified in their ancestral lineage. Our results provide new insights into the evolutionary histories and divergent genetic adaptations of African suids.

Biogeography and conservation of desert warthog Phacochoerus aethiopicus and common warthog Phacochoerus africanus (Artiodactyla: Suidae) in the Horn of Africa

Abstract Two species of warthog are currently widely recognised, the poorly known desert warthog Phacochoerus aethiopicus and the widely distributed common warthog Phacochoerus africanus. Spatial data for both species were collected during field surveys and from the literature, museums, colleagues, naturalists, local experts, and online resources to assess their biogeography in the Horn of Africa (HoA). Their distributions were overlaid with ArcGIS datasets for altitude, rainfall, temperature, and ecoregions. Phacochoerus aethiopicus appears to be restricted to Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia, with no records west of the Eastern Rift Valley (ERV). The estimated current geographic distribution of P. aethiopicus is 1,109,000 km2. Phacochoerus africanus occurs in all five countries of the HoA and has an estimated current geographic distribution in the HoA of 1,213,000 km2. Phacochoerus africanus appears to be the more adaptable species although P. aethiopicus is able to live where mean annual rainfall is more variable. Although both species are allopatric over vast regions, they are sympatric in central east Ethiopia, north Somalia, central Kenya, north coast of Kenya, and southeast Kenya. Both suids remain locally common, their populations are, however, in decline due to the negative impacts on the environment by the rapidly growing human populations in all five countries.

Year-round longitudinal monitoring of a bushmeat market in central-western Côte d’Ivoire: Implication for wildlife conservation

Hunting for bushmeat in the tropics has become a major issue in terms of conservation and human health, especially in western and central Africa. In Côte d’Ivoire, despite a ban on hunting since 1974, the bushmeat trade is widespread. This situation has been exacerbated by the long-term socio-political unrest in Côte d’Ivoire, resulting in the lack of effective protection of protected areas (PAs). Our study was carried out in the central-west Department of Daloa. We conducted standard interviews with the six main traders of the markets to trace the geographical origin of the bushmeat, and quantify the number of animals sold by direct observations twice a week during 52 weeks. We used multiple regression analyses to identify combinations of variables (proportion of animals killed, mean body mass, total biomass, price of carcass, price per body mass) that influenced poaching pressure.A total of 955 carcasses were recorded in the central market of Daloa. This number includes 948 mammals (99 %), six reptiles (0.6 %), and one bird (0.1 %). Rodentia were the most frequently sold taxons by number of individuals (58 %), followed by Artiodactyla (35 %), Carnivora (4 %), and Primates (1 %). Almost half of the game originated from the Department of Zoukougbeu (42 %; N = 404), followed by the Departments of Daloa (29 %; N = 275) and Séguéla (13 %; N = 123). Over 75 % of all the carcasses appearing in the market consisted of greater cane rats and bushbuck. In contrast, over 68 % of the total biomass (23028.75 kg) entering the market was supplied by Bushbuck and Common warthog. Game diversity by catchment area was the highest in Séguéla and Grégbeu and the lowest in Guezon and Maminigui. Our data indicated that hunting was unequally distributed throughout the central-western region of Côte d’Ivoire or markets are unequally provisioned by hunters. Human population density of the catchment areas affected the quantity and the quality of bushmeat observed at the urban market. Increasing hunting pressure in the Departments of Zoukougbeu proximate to the Haut Sassandra forest reserve indicates that the local authority in charge of the surveillance of this reserve has to reinforce its protection to avoid further faunal depletion. Because most of the ungulates and rodents found on the market occur at high density in disturbed habitats, their relative frequencies in the carcasses provisioning the market could be used as indicators of site over-exploitation.

Warthog Genomes Resolve an Evolutionary Conundrum and Reveal Introgression of Disease Resistance Genes.

African wild pigs have a contentious evolutionary and biogeographic history. Until recently, desert warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) and common warthog (P. africanus) were considered a single species. Molecular evidence surprisingly suggested they diverged at least 4.4 million years ago, and possibly outside of Africa. We sequenced the first whole-genomes of four desert warthogs and 35 common warthogs from throughout their range. We show that these two species diverged much later than previously estimated, 400,000–1,700,000 years ago depending on assumptions of gene flow. This brings it into agreement with the paleontological record. We found that the common warthog originated in western Africa and subsequently colonized eastern and southern Africa. During this range expansion, the common warthog interbred with the desert warthog, presumably in eastern Africa, underlining this region’s importance in African biogeography. We found that immune system–related genes may have adaptively introgressed into common warthogs, indicating that resistance to novel diseases was one of the most potent drivers of evolution as common warthogs expanded their range. Hence, we solve some of the key controversies surrounding warthog evolution and reveal a complex evolutionary history involving range expansion, introgression, and adaptation to new diseases.

Parasites and blood-meal hosts of the tsetse fly in Tanzania: a metagenomics study

BackgroundTsetse flies can transmit various Trypanosoma spp. that cause trypanosomiasis in humans, wild animals, and domestic animals. Amplicon deep sequencing of the 12S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene can be used to detect mammalian tsetse hosts, and the 18S rRNA gene can be used to detect all associated eukaryotic pathogens, including Trypanosoma spp.MethodsTsetse flies were collected from the Serengeti National Park (n = 48), Maswa Game Reserve (n = 42), and Tarangire National Park (n = 49) in Tanzania in 2012–13. Amplicon deep sequencing targeting mammal-specific 12S rRNA and 18S rRNA genes was performed to screen the blood-feeding sources of tsetse flies and eukaryotic parasites in tsetse flies, respectively.Results12S rRNA gene deep sequencing revealed that various mammals were blood-feeding sources of the tsetse flies, including humans, common warthogs, African buffalos, mice, giraffes, African elephants, waterbucks, and lions. Genes of humans were less frequently detected in Serengeti (P = 0.0024), whereas African buffaloes were detected more frequently as a blood-feeding source (P = 0.0010). 18S rRNA gene deep sequencing showed that six tsetse samples harbored the Trypanosoma gene, which was identified as Trypanosoma godfreyi and Trypanosoma simiae in subsequent ITS1 gene sequencing.ConclusionsThrough amplicon deep sequencing targeting the 12S rRNA and 18S rRNA genes, various mammalian animals were identified as blood-meal sources, and two Trypanosoma species were detected in tsetse flies collected from the Maswa Game Reserve, Serengeti National Park, and Tarangire National Park in Tanzania. This study illustrates the patterns of parasitism of tsetse fly, wild animals targeted by the fly, and Trypanosoma spp. carried by the fly in Tanzania. It may provide essential data for formulating better strategies to control African trypanosomes.Graphical

Population density and distribution of common warthog (Phacochoerus africanusGmelin, 1788) in Dabena Valley Forest, Western Ethiopia

AbstractA study about the spatial distribution and density of common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) was conducted in two focal areas in Dabena Valley Forest, Western Ethiopia, from May 2016 to June 2018. These were Gassi Controlled Area (GCHA) in the southwestern part and Haro Aba Diko Controlled Hunting Area (HADCHA) in the northeastern part of the Valley. Population abundance and densities were analysed using distance sampling method. A total of 246 and 652 warthogs were counted in GCHA and HADCHA, respectively. The two study areas were significantly different during the wet season and during the dry season in the number of common warthog population per transect. During the dry season, HADCHA possessed more mean of cluster density (5.18/km2) than the GCHA (2.37/km2). Common warthog encounter rate ranged from 1.1 to 3.73/km during the wet season in both study areas. The two study areas did not show significant variation (χ2 = 0.188,df = 1,p = 0.05) in the clusters of common warthog sightings. A high number of common warthog population are threatened by increasing anthropogenic activities. Common warthog's natural habitats and their buffer zones should be properly monitored: Cattle grazing and human encroachment should be prohibited.

WARTHOG-HUMAN CONFLICTS IN BORGU SECTOR OF KAINJI LAKE NATIONAL PARK, NIGERIA

This study assessed the impacts of common Warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) on farm crops around Borgu sector of Kainji Lake National Park, Nigeria. Data was obtained with the aid of structured questionnaire in six communities which were purposively selected (Woro, Kemenji, Worumakoto, Maji, Venira and Kanikoko) and questionnaire was randomly administered to the identified farmers. The sample size was put at one hundred and twenty (120) respondents, of which eighty one (81) questionnaires were retrieved. The demographic characteristics of the respondents indicated that age group 31-40 years recorded the highest (39.5%). The finding further revealed that 64.2% of the respondents are Muslim and 65.4% are married. Also majority of the respondents (53.1%) had stay in the study area between 6-10 years. Majority of the respondents agrees that there is presence of Warthog around their farms. The types of crops cultivated by the respondents are Maize, Guinea corn, Rice etc. Majority of the respondents indicated that they have experience crop raiding by Warthog. Types of crops preferred by Common Warthogs showed that Maize is the most preferred. The season of intense crops raiding is the raining season. The various preventive method used by the respondents to prevent Warthogs crop raiding are watch guarding, scare crow and fire/smoke. The possible solution as suggested on how to prevent Warthog-farmers conflicts are compensation and employment. This study confirms that Warthog has an impact of farm lands in the study area by causing much damage on farmer’s crops.