Common Raptor Research Articles

Biparental Care in a Generalist Raptor, the Chimango Caracara in Central Argentina

ABSTRACT The allocation of parental care behaviors between the sexes may be influenced by the species’ mating system, degree of sexual size dimorphism, and predictability of food resources. Biparental care (i.e., both parents contributing to raising young) has been documented in raptors, including those with minimal sexual size dimorphism and/or whose food resources are unpredictable in time (e.g., scavengers). The Chimango Caracara (Milvago chimango) is a common raptor with slight sexual size dimorphism and a scavenging lifestyle. During two breeding seasons, we performed focal observations at nests in a Chimango Caracara colony in central Argentina to assess the division of labor between the sexes. For males and females separately, we measured the time spent incubating and brooding, and the food delivery rate to nestlings; then we used GLMMs to assess various factors that may influence these behaviors, including parental sex, time of day, clutch or brood size, and nestlings’ age. We used GLMMs to test the influence of time spent brooding and food delivery rate (both parents combined for these variables) on nest success and productivity. Although both sexes contributed to all parental care activities, females spent more time incubating and brooding than males. Brooding time decreased as nestlings aged. Food delivery rate did not differ between the sexes. Food delivery rate was higher during the middle of nestlings’ development but declined thereafter. Nest success and productivity were higher at nests with higher food delivery rates. Adults spent more time incubating and brooding during morning and midday, and food delivery rate was higher during the afternoon.

Notes about food consumption strategies of the Crane hawk: (Geranospiza caerulescens) (aves, accipitridae) on Cane toad: Rhinella marina

The Crane Hawk: Geranospiza caerulescens is one of the most common raptors in forests and open lands across Central and South America. Little is known about its eating habits, even less about the type of consumption strategy the bird applies to its prey. Based on a film recording, the text describes how a Crane Hawk individual predates a Cane Toad; Rhinella marina in a lowland savanna of the municipality of Puerto Salgar, Cundinamarca, Colombia.

Description and Overview of the Western Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus, 1758)

The current study gives information about the Taxonomy, morphology, and migration routes of the Western Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus which is one of the most common raptors in Iraq's southern Mesopotamian marshlands. This review presented several topics related to the monitoring migration of this bird, Western Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus, its classification where it belongs to the order of Accipitriformes and the family of Accipitridae. It has been considered a native breeding resident in Iraq marshes ( specially south area ) and maybe in the wetlands part of middle Iraq , also it has been considered a migrant visiting Iraq in winter. It was once widespread in the Euphrates wetlands, and It bred in Hammar Lake and the marshes nearby Basra. The description of the bird, is a huge, hefty harrier with rather broad wings, larger than other European harriers. The male's feathers is mysterious reddishbrown and brighter golden streaks seen especially over the breast. A majority of the area around the shoulders and the head have a mild greyish-yellowish color. The rectrices, secondary and tertiary remiges are all absolute grey, contrasting with a brown color in the forewing and the black main remiges on their wingtips. About the female is nearly totally chocolatey brown. The upper parts of the head, throat, and the shoulders have a markedly brighter yellowish tone; These could be sharply delineated with quite contrasting. There are two major known migratory raptor routes in the western Palearctic, the first one is flyway from West African , Eurasian- to East African (named western of Black Sea), that connects northern Europe with western Siberia to Middle East which ends in the sub-Saharan Africa ,the second flyway from Western European- to the West African ( the Atlantic) , which raptors use.

Integrated Approach Improves Monitoring of Wintering Red Kites in Central Europe

ABSTRACT The Red Kite (Milvus milvus) is a common raptor in suitable areas of Austria, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia during the nonbreeding season. However, the exact number of birds wintering in these countries remains unknown. Through an integrated approach using satellite telemetry, direct field surveys at nocturnal roosts, and citizen science databases, we estimated the wintering population of Red Kites in this area during the winter of 2020/2021. Based on three surveys taking place at the beginning (28 November 2020), middle (9 January 2021), and end (5 February 2021) of winter, respectively, we counted 566, 558, and 536 Red Kites. The observations from online citizen science databases mostly appeared to correspond with the area of communal roost sites. Using our combined approach, the estimates of wintering Red Kites were determined as minimum numbers in the study area. A comparison of historical data (from the second half of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries, respectively) and our own results suggests that the wintering population of Red Kites in the study area has increased substantially. This dynamic could be caused by changes in climatic conditions, a shift of the birds' breeding range in Europe, changes in migration behavior and/or food availability, and/or conservation efforts.

Patterns of Water Use by Raptors in the Southern Great Plains

ABSTRACT There is a paucity of data evaluating water use by raptors. Although raptors are believed to satisfy their water requirements through metabolic processes, they are known to experience reduced reproductive success during periods of drought, and there is evidence of water being important for site occupancy in arid landscapes. Several raptor species have a seasonal or year-round presence in west Texas, a drought-prone, semi-arid region of the Southern Great Plains. We examined species-specific timing of free water use by common raptors in this region, and examined environmental conditions associated with water use. We collected 4549 camera trap-days of data across 4 yr at ten human-made water sources placed for cattle. We recorded 14 species of raptors among the 1177 detections of raptors visiting water sources; of these, 1084 raptors (92.1%) perched at tanks, and 93 (7.1%) flew by tanks. Of the raptors that perched at tanks, 63.5% drank and 20.8% both bathed and drank. Barn Owls (Tyto alba; 35.6%), Swainson's Hawks (Buteo swainsoni; 32.0%), and Northern Harriers (Circus hudsonius; 21.0%) were the predominate species detected. Visits by Northern Harriers and Swainson's Hawks increased with increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation. Visits by Barn Owls increased with increasing drought severity. Further, detections per 100 trap-days increased substantively across our 4-yr study period during which the region experienced one of the worst droughts on record. Although our data do not demonstrate these raptors require free water, they do reveal an increasing use of free water in relation to hotter and drier conditions. How this influences survival and reproduction remains unknown, but may become a pressing question because current climate models predict the study area will experience increases in heat and decreases in precipitation.

HEMATOLOGY AND PLASMA BIOCHEMISTRY REFERENCE INTERVALS FOR FREE-LIVING ADULT CHIMANGO CARACARA (MILVAGO CHIMANGO) DURING THE NONBREEDING SEASON.

Hematological and blood biochemistry values are useful in assessing the physiological, nutritional, and overall health status of captive and free-living wildlife. For the chimango caracara (Milvago chimango), the most common raptor species in Argentina, reference intervals (RIs) for hematology and blood biochemistry are lacking. For this study, 86 chimango caracaras were captured and studied in Mar del Plata and neighboring areas (Buenos Aires, Argentina) during winter (April-July) in 2018 and 2019. This is the first study to present RIs for 33 blood parameters in a large number of free-living chimango caracaras during the nonbreeding season. In addition, the variability of blood parameters according to sex and calendar year was analyzed. Overall, values for the studied parameters were similar to those described for other raptor species. There were significant differences between years for absolute monocyte counts, relative eosinophils, monocyte counts, glucose, phosphorus, and alanine aminotransferase. Only the relative count of eosinophils, aspartate aminotransferase, and calcium showed significant differences between the sexes. The values of absolute monocyte counts and the relative count of eosinophils and monocytes, glucose, phosphorus, and alanine aminotransferase were higher in 2019 than in 2018, whereas mean corpuscular hemoglobin and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration were higher in 2018. Relative eosinophil counts were higher for males than for females, and aspartate aminotransferase activity and calcium concentration were significantly higher for females than for males. The RIs for hematology and plasma biochemistry from this large number of chimango caracaras is of clinical relevance not only for chimango caracaras under medical care in rehabilitation centers but also in ecological studies aimed to investigate the physiological responses of this species to natural and anthropogenic changes.

Evaluation of histo-toxicity of nimesulide in Black Kites (Milvus migrans): a pharmacodynamic study.

The present experimental work was conducted to elucidate the toxicity of nimesulide at three different doses in black kites (Milvus migrans). M. migrans is one of the most common raptors near human habitations. The goal of the current investigation was to determine whether nimesulide is similarly hazardous to raptors as was diclofenac sodium and to investigate the acute oral toxicity of nimesulide in these birds. For this study, eight adult male black kites (M. migrans) were randomly divided into four groups. M. migrans in the control group (n = 02) were not treated with nimesulide. The other three groups were given nimesulide doses. The birds in the first (n = 02) were declared the control group. The second (n = 02), third (n = 02), and fourth groups were administered nimesulide at a low, medium, and high dose of 2, 4, and 6 mg/kg live body weight of bird/day, respectively, for 10 days. Nimesulide-addled birds became listless and despondent, then anorexic. The birds were standing there with their eyes closed and showing no signs of life. There was an increase in saliva production, a slowing of breathing, and dilated pupils. No clinical signs were observed in the control group. No mortality was seen in the control or treated groups. The control group did not show lesions of gout, but black kites intoxicated with nimesulide at 2, 4, and 6 mg/kg live body weight of bird/day showed inflammation, apoptosis, hemorrhage, necrosis, and leukocytic infiltration tissues of the liver, kidney, and heart of black kites (M. migrans) treated with different concentrations of nimesulide. The treated groups also showed apoptosis of myofibrils and hyperplasia. The hypertrophy, atrophy, fibrosis, necrosis of skeletal muscles and hemorrhage were prominent in the muscles of black kites (M. migrans) intoxicated with nimesulide. All observed histological alterations got worse in a dose-related way. There was no significant difference in AST, ALT, ALP, serum uric acid, but a significant difference was observed in the values of serum urea (p = 0.001) and serum creatinine (p = 0.019).

Effects on hematology and blood biochemistry profile of intramuscular meloxicam injection in Brahminy kite and Barn owl.

Meloxicam is used widely for exotic animal analgesia, but its toxicity in common raptor species in Thailand is unclear. This study evaluated the single-dose effect of intramuscular meloxicam in common raptor species in Thailand for short-term and long-term periods. Twenty-two raptors were administered a single 1 mg/kg dose of meloxicam individually via intramuscular injection. The following were evaluated: clinical appearance, body weight, body condition score, body temperature, fecal appearance, complete blood cell count, and biochemistry panel before (day 0) and after the injection (1, 7, and 30 days). The collected samples were categorized into three groups: Brahminy kite (Haliastur indus) (n = 10), adult Barn owl (Tyto javanica) (n = 4), and juvenile Barn owl (n = 8). None of the raptors in the study groups showed any abnormalities. The hematological profiles were significantly different in the short-term period (day 1 and day 7). The creatinine, aspartate aminotransferase, and creatinine kinase increased in several groups. On the other hand, the packed cell volume decreased in the Brahminy kite and juvenile Barn owl groups. According to the findings, an intramuscular injection of 1 mg/kg meloxicam affected the blood biochemistry panel of the muscle, but the affected raptors recovered within one week. An intramuscular injection of meloxicam at a single 1 mg/kg dose in Brahminy kites and Barn owls was not associated with the morbidity, hepatotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, and nephrotoxicity in the short- and long-term periods.

Проблема гибели птиц на ЛЭП и прогресс её решения в бассейне Средней Волги

Проблема гибели птиц на ЛЭП и прогресс её решения в бассейне Средней Волги

Hunger sweetens the beans: evidence of opportunistic feeding behaviour of the little owl (Athene noctua, Scopoli 1769) from Peloponnese, Greece

Abstract The little owl (Athene noctua) is a common raptor in Mediterranean habitats. To acquire more information on its diet, this study identified cranial and post-cranial skeletal material from 70 owl pellets collected during the 2016 and 2017 breeding seasons. The material was used to quantify the little owl’s relative prey abundance using MNI (minimum number of individuals), a taphonomical unit. This study is the first to examine the diet of the little owl in the Peloponnese (southern Greece). After examining 3,691 isolated skeletal and exoskeletal remains from the processed pellets, a total of 78 and 108 prey items were recorded for the two consecutive years. This study, in congruence with previous research, showed that in both years the little owl favoured primarily small mammals and arthropods, with a clear predominance of Thomas’s pine vole (Microtus thomasi) and arthropods from the class Diplopoda. Finally, a redundancy discriminant analysis (RDA) was applied to our two-year results, along with those from similar studies in the Mediterranean region, to examine the relationship between habitat types and prey taxa, which supported the little owl’s opportunistic feeding behaviour, depending on variation of ecological factors.

Analysis of Genetic Structure and Genetic Diversity in Japanese Black Kite Population Using mtDNA.

The black kite (Milvus migrans) is widespread in the "Old World" and is a common raptor species in Japan. However, examples of regional population dynamics and genetic research are limited. To reconsider the natural history and current status of the black kite in Japan, we analyzed the genetic diversity of the Japanese black kite population. We collected 59 black kite samples from 22 locations across Japan and extracted DNA; 1585 bp sequences of the cytochrome b and control region, which form part of the mitochondrial DNA, were determined for genetic analysis of the population. Consequently, six haplotypes were detected in 59 individuals, 50 of which had the same major haplotype, namely, Mm1. Moreover, the genetic analysis indicated that the Japanese black kite population would fit the population expansion model. Phylogenetic analysis using sequences obtained in this study or from a DNA database indicated that the Japanese black kite population can be divided into two groups: (1) Mm1 and its close haplotypes and (2) Mm5. The sequence of Mm1 was exactly the same as that of black kite in Pakistan, India, and Korea, suggesting that this haplotype is generally widespread in East Eurasia, and that the ancestral haplotype of the Japanese population likely migrated from continental East Asia and expanded its distribution throughout Japan. In summary, we found that the black kite population in East Eurasia, including Japan, is composed of at least two lineages.

Land use changes and raptor population trends: A twelve-year monitoring of two common species in agricultural landscapes of Western France

There are serious concerns about the ecological degradation caused by modern agriculture and its impact on top-chains predators. But, scientists still disagree on how to assess which are the winners and losers of Anthropocene biodiversity changes. In this field of research, many studies have been carried out on passerine birds but long-term ones, and especially on raptors, are still missing. Our study reports a twelve-year survey on two diurnal common raptors (the Buzzard, Buteo buteo and the Eurasian kestrel, Falco tinnunculu s) facing recent land use changes in Western France farmland landscapes. Precise remote sensing data were analyzed each year, allowing us to precisely describe land use changes and stability along this time series. Buzzards showed reduced abundances in intensified landscapes and responded negatively to wood habitat instability while kestrels were more abundant and stable when areas of meadows increased. According to life history traits of these two-raptor species, we may suppose that buzzards, as generalist predators, mainly suffer of nesting site decrease while kestrels suffer of food depletion and namely voles living in meadows. No decreasing or increasing regional or local trends was observed for buzzards during these 12-years confirming that populations seem adjust their numbers to fit to local resources. Inversely, kestrels exhibit significant population collapses at both regional and local scales. If limiting wood habitats fragmentation or disturbance would optimize buzzard densities, drastic management measures improving surfaces and quality of grassland habitats will be necessary to reverse the decline of the Eurasian kestrel, highlighted by this study. • No decreasing or increasing trends is observed for buzzards whereas kestrels exhibit significant population collapses. • Buzzards show reduced abundances in intensified landscapes and respond negatively to wood habitat instability. • Drastic management measures improving surfaces and quality of grassland habitats are needed to reverse decline of kestrels.

Community science data suggest the most common raptors (Accipitridae) in urban centres are smaller, habitat‐generalist species

As the world becomes more urbanized, identifying traits that allow some species to thrive in cities will be key to predicting which species will probably remain common and which may require conservation attention. Large, diverse, widely distributed and readily documented raptors represent an ideal taxonomic group to understand how species persist and thrive in urban areas. Global community science datasets can reveal patterns that might be obscured in studies limited to a small number of locations, those relying on presence/absence data or those conducted by a small number of observers. We analysed 127 species of raptors (hawks and related species; Family: Accipitridae) using recent community‐science (eBird) records from 59 cities on five continents, modelling two indices of occurrence with five ecological and life history traits, and incorporating phylogenetic relatedness. Based on previous studies of avian traits in urban vs. rural populations, and well as our casual observations of birds in cities across the USA and around the world, we hypothesized that urban raptor communities would be dominated by smaller, ecological‐generalist species regardless of the regional species pool. We defined urban occurrence in two ways: urban abundance (the frequency of breeding season reports within 10 km of a city centre) and species proportion (the relative abundance of each species in the local raptor community). We did not detect a strong phylogenetic signal for either urban occurrence index, suggesting that various unrelated raptor species may become common in cities of the world. In the best‐performing models, both urban indices were significantly negatively associated with body mass, and significantly positively associated with habitat breadth; species proportion was also significantly associated with nest substrate breadth. Our analysis suggests that there may be an ‘archetypal urban raptor’ and that species lacking these traits (e.g. large, specialist taxa) may be at greater conservation risk as global urbanization increases.

Cardiac Disease of Raptors.

Cardiac disease, in its various presentations, is being recognized as a common raptor health problem. Evidence suggests that the prevalence of cardiac disease varies between captive and wild bird of prey populations, probably because of differences in activity levels and diet. However, a wide variety of cardiovascular diseases have been reported to affect raptor species (captive and free living), including atherosclerosis, pathogenic arrhythmias, infectious cardiomyopathies, and endocarditis. Diagnostic testing used to identify cardiac abnormalities include radiographic imaging, electrocardiogram, echocardiogram, and computed tomography angiograms. Information pertaining to therapeutic treatment for raptor cardiac disease patients is inadequate or has not been investigated. This review of cardiac disease will provide current information regarding cardiac diseases that are diagnosed in birds of prey, diagnostic testing, and treatment options.

Phylogeography and demographic history of the black kite Milvus migrans, a widespread raptor in Eurasia, Australia and Africa

The black kite Milvus migrans, one of the most common raptor species, shows great flexibility as regards food resources and breeding sites. While black kite subspecies are found all over Eurasia, Africa and Australia, it has been poorly studied outside of Europe, with virtually nothing known about the phylogeny of populations in Asia, India, Africa or Australia. We analysed 85 published black kite nucleotide sequences and ca 660 new sequences from the ranges of the main black kite subspecies using a non‐invasive method of DNA extraction from moulted feathers. In doing so, we evaluated genetic diversity and population affinities and reconstructed their demographic histories. Populations from Europe, northern Asia and India all had separate haplogroups of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. The European and North Asian subspecies were isolated in the Pleistocene and spread across the northern Palearctic following climate amelioration, forming a broad intergradation zone from western Siberia and Kazakhstan to eastern Europe. Representatives of the European, North Asian and Indian haplogroups were found in Pakistan, where they probably breed. The Australasian population separated from the Indian population relatively recently and carries one of the two Indian major haplotypes. We found support for the assumption that the African yellow‐billed kite differs from the black kite at the species level. Further, the yellow‐billed kite contains at least two genetically distant mitochondrial lineages with ranges that do not correspond with its traditional subspecies ranges. Based on these data, we were able to outline the general pattern of black kite phylogeography over its entire range, making it possible to evaluate the evolutionary history of the species as a whole.

Large-scale citizen science survey of a common nocturnal raptor: urbanization and weather conditions influence the occupancy and detectability of the Tawny Owl Strix aluco

ABSTRACT Capsule Tawny Owl Strix aluco site occupancy and detectability are influenced by habitat and environmental variables. Aims: To determine factors influencing Tawny Owl occupancy and detectability around British homes and gardens using a large-scale citizen science survey across two main survey periods. Methods Surveys of 20 min duration were undertaken one evening a week from the homes and gardens of volunteers, for up to 26 weeks between October and March of 2005/2006 and 2018/2019, and analysed primarily using multi-season occupancy modelling. Results During two survey periods, more than 9000 sites were surveyed across the breeding range of the Tawny Owl within Britain. The main drivers of occupancy were found to be the extent of broadleaf woodland cover and the degree of urbanization. Detection probability was influenced by date, time, weather, and moon phase. Using the current method, a minimum of five to six survey visits per site would be required to have 95% confidence over the presence or absence of Tawny Owls at a given site, but it may be possible to optimize the survey method further to increase efficiency by surveying in the autumn or early spring, early after dusk, and on cloudless dry evenings close to the full moon. Conclusion The findings indicate that survey methodologies for surveying Tawny Owls can be optimized to increase the efficiency of detection, if present at a site. We highlight the need for further research on the effects of urbanization on Tawny Owls, particularly with regards to artificial light pollution and its effects on behaviour and settlement, along with the need for greater understanding of Tawny Owl activity budgets, which would aid the interpretation of survey results.

Nestling Physiology Is Independent of Somatic Development in a Common Raptor, the American Kestrel (Falco sparverius).

AbstractAlthough many studies have documented the developmental trajectory of somatic traits in birds, few measure physiological traits, and even fewer document individual variation in developmental trajectory across ecological context. Hematological traits underlying aerobic capacity can be predictive of nestling survival, fledgling flight ability, and ultimately recruitment. This study aimed to assess individual variation in the developmental trajectory of two physiological traits that underlie aerobic capacity, hematocrit and hemoglobin concentration, in relation to somatic development and ecological context. Our study species, the American kestrel (Falco sparverius), is sexually dimorphic and therefore likely to show sexual variation in developmental trajectory and nestling maturity. We used lay date, year, brood size, nestling sex ratio, and parental nest visit rate to assess ecological context. Although somatic traits showed similar trajectories across nestlings, developmental trajectory for hematocrit and hemoglobin concentration showed individual variation not previously documented. This individual variation in developmental change, or trajectory, for physiological traits could not be explained by somatic development, sex, parental nest visit rate, lay date, year, brood size, or nestling sex ratio. However, we did find higher final hemoglobin concentration in 2018 and in nests with earlier lay dates. These findings demonstrate the importance of assessing physiological traits that capture aspects of individual quality distinct from somatic traits. Future studies are needed to understand the causes of individual variation in developmental trajectory, which cannot be explained by the ecological variables presented here, and the potential fitness consequences of this variation.

Introducing ecological uncertainty in risk sensitivity indices: the case of wind farm impact on birds

In wind-farm impact assessments, it is useful to know the level of uncertainty that characterizes some key variables used to assess the sensitivity to risk in species of conservation concern. Here, we have introduced the use of the Shannon entropy as a value of ecological uncertainty of the prediction of the risk assessment index, obtained from two ecological traits (flight altitude and flight type). We based our evaluation of risk sensitivity on sampling of three common raptor birds (Gyps fulvus, Falco tinnunculus, Buteo buteo) all co-occurring in a wind farm landscape (central Italy). As to flight altitude, Gyps fulvus prefers the flight altitude category > 300 m, Falco tinnunculus categories closer to the ground, Buteo does not show clear preference for a particular flight altitude category. As regards the flight type, Gyps fulvus showed significant preference for circular and thermal flight patterns, Falco tinnunculus for rapid horizontal/vertical flight patterns, while Buteo was found to prefer constant directions and circular and thermal flight patterns. Multiplication of the scores associated with these eco-behavioural traits by the number of recorded occurrences allowed estimation of risk sensitivity used to compute the risk assessment index. We normalized the partial scores of the risk associated with these traits with H' values, thus obtaining more reliable species-specific normalized risk indices. The greater the entropy, the greater the level of uncertainty associated with it, and the lower the reliability of the risk index. Therefore, the entropy associated with flight behaviour diversity (altitude or type) could be a proxy for assessing uncertainty in wind power impact assessment. We think that normalizing indices of risk by including a measure of uncertainty can support decision makers in bird conservation and wind farm management.

Genetic Structure and Diversity of Two Populations of the Eastern Buzzard (Buteo japonicus japonicus and B. j. toyoshimai) in Japan.

The nominotypical subspecies of the Eastern buzzard (Buteo japonicus japonicus; BJJ) is a common raptor inhabiting East Asia and Japan. Another subspecies, B. j. toyoshimai (BJT), inhabits only the Bonin Islands of the Ogasawara Islands, where there are only an estimated 85 breeding pairs. Because of this low population size, this subspecies is classified as endangered (class IB) in Japan. The aims of the present study were to examine genetic differences between BJJ and BJT, determine the genetic structure of the Eastern Buzzard, and assess genetic diversity within each subspecies. We sequenced 1526 bp within the control region of the mtDNA of 10 BJJ individuals during the breeding season in four sites; similarly, we sequenced 23 BJJ individuals during winter in three sites. We detected 24 haplotypes among the 33 individuals. In a similar analysis performed with 12 BJT individuals, three haplotypes were detected. The phylogenetic analysis showed that BJJ and BJT have diverged into distinct clades, supporting the genetic differentiation between the subspecies. Network and mismatch distribution analyses indicated that BJJ may have experienced population expansion. In addition, comparisons with other raptors revealed a high degree of genetic diversity in the BJJ population. In contrast, the genetic diversity of the BJT population is lower than that in other raptors. Our results indicated that it is necessary to protect BJT to prevent the reduction in its genetic diversity.

Bird of the turning tide

Bird of the turning tide