Common Flowers Research Articles

Biodiversity of the Micro-morphologies of the Petal Epidermis of Angiosperms & Their Scientific Aesthetics, Quasi-Geometry

The micro-morphologies and biodiversities of the epidermis of flower petals of angiosperms were reported for the first time. By manual slicing anatomy and microscopic photography technique, the micro-morphologies of the upper and lower epidermis of petals of some common ornamental flowers in Kunming were studied, and the biodiversities were discovered. The results showed these much-varied pigment cells appeared not only a new compensation to anatomy, but a new criteria to taxonomy, so that a brand new research field of “Cell Taxonomy” was established instead of the current “Chromosome Taxonomy” widely used in phytosystematics research. Furthermore, the most interesting and significant phenomena was their scientific aesthetics: these pigment cells of flower petals were quite special, planary, far different from the ordinary plant cells in plant organs & tissues. By comparison to ordinary geometry, these colorful cells of the fresh flower petals could be described as “Quasi-geometry” for their special origin and micro-morphological characteristics. As for the aspect of art, it was quite similar to “Quasi-crystal” discovered by Daniel Schechtman, so that the art future was discussed, obviously another new epoch of scientific-art history began.

Study of peculiarities of flavonoids accumulation in common tansy flowers harvested in various urban and agrobiocenoses of Voronezh region

Study of peculiarities of flavonoids accumulation in common tansy flowers harvested in various urban and agrobiocenoses of Voronezh region

IDENTIFICATION OF PERMISSIBLE AREAS OF PREPARATION OF MEDICINAL VEGETABLE RAW MATERIALS NEAR TRANSPORT LINES

The purpose of the work is to study the permissible distance for the collection of medicinal plant raw materials near transport highways of different degrees of loading. The study was carried out in the Voronezh region on the example of eight different types of medicinal vegetable raw materials (Herring grass bitter, avian mountain grass, five-foot desert grass, plain thousand-year-old grass, double-ground nettle leaves, large planter leaves, common pajma flowers, core lip flowers) Collected in time of procurement along and at different distance from roads and railways of different degree of load in different natural zones, regulated by normative documentation. In the analyzed samples, the content of standardized biologically active substances, as well as heavy metals, pesticides, radionuclides, was previously estimated and full compliance with pharmacopoeia requirements was shown. In this work, the analysis was carried out on the level of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid in the medicinal plant raw material, which makes it possible to estimate contamination of the raw material with dust particles. On the basis of the obtained data using the mathematical simulation method, the permissible distances from the transport lines, which can be recommended for the collection of safe medicinal plant raw materials, have been identified: Distance from major roads and highways loaded by road in forest natural zone conditions – at least 230 m, in forest steppe zone conditions – at least 300 m, in steppe zone conditions devoid of wood and shrub vegetation, – Not less than 660 m, near non-high-speed roads characterized by low traffic load – not less than 160 m, near railway lines – not less than 130 m. The obtained results can be recommended for safe collection of medicinal vegetable raw materials.

Dominant bee species and floral abundance drive parasite temporal dynamics in plant-pollinator communities.

Pollinator declines can leave communities less diverse and potentially at increased risk to infectious diseases. Species-rich plant and bee communities have high species turnover, making the study of disease dynamics challenging. To address how temporal dynamics shape parasite prevalence in plant and bee communities, we screened >5,000 bees and flowers through an entire growing season for five common bee microparasites (Nosema ceranae, N. bombi, Crithidia bombi, C. expoeki and neogregarines). Over 110 bee species and 89 flower species were screened, revealing 42% of bee species (12.2% individual bees) and 70% of flower species (8.7% individual flowers) had at least one parasite in or on them, respectively. Some common flowers (e.g., Lychnis flos-cuculi) harboured multiple parasite species, whilst others (e.g., Lythrum salicaria) had few. Significant temporal variation of parasite prevalence in bees was linked to bee diversity, bee and flower abundance, and community composition. Specifically, we found that bee communities had the highest prevalence late in the season, when social bees (Bombus spp. and Apis mellifera) were dominant and bee diversity was lowest. Conversely, prevalence on flowers was lowest late in the season when floral abundance was the highest. Thus, turnover in the bee community impacted community-wide prevalence, and turnover in the plant community impacted when parasite transmission was likely to occur at flowers. These results imply that efforts to improve bee health will benefit from promoting high floral numbers to reduce transmission risk, maintaining bee diversity to dilute parasites, and monitoring the abundance of dominant competent hosts.

Influence of Common Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) Flower Polysaccharide Complex on P-Glycoprotein Transporter Activity in Vitro

The influence of the common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) flower polysaccharide complex on P-glycoprotein (Pgp, ABCB1-protein) activity in Caco-2 cell line was studied. The in vitro Pgp activity was assessed by measuring fexofenadine transport in a transwell-system. The ratio of apparent permeability coefficients b–a/a–b for fexofenadine decreased by 57.1, 62.7, and 72.1% as compared to a control series if the transport medium was treated with the polysaccharide complex at concentrations of 7, 10, and 100 μM, respectively. This indicated that the polysaccharide decreased the ABCB1-protein activity. Acomparison of the apparent permeability coefficients of fexofenadine and their ratio for the Pgp inhibitor verapamil and the polysaccharide complex from common tansy flowers showed that the polysaccharide inhibited Pgp more than verapamil. The IC50 of the studied polysaccharide complex was calculated and allowed the dose for in vivo studies to be determined.

Comparative metabolomics reveals differences in flavonoid metabolites among different coloured buckwheat flowers

Flavonoids are the largest group of secondary metabolites, and they play important biological functions. Buckwheat, particularly its flowers, contains a considerable amount of flavonoids. However, only a few flavonoid metabolites have been identified to date, and differences in flavonoid metabolites between Tartary and common buckwheat flowers have not yet been reported. In the present study, one Tartary buckwheat variety with green flowers and three common buckwheat varieties with white, pink and red flowers were sampled. Flowers of red-flowered common buckwheat had the highest total flavonoid content, followed by Tartary buckwheat flowers. The flower extracts were analysed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionisation–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–ESI–MS/MS), and a total of 188 flavonoid metabolites, including 53 flavones, 39 flavonols, 33 flavone C-glycosides, 24 flavanones, 18 anthocyanins, 11 isoflavones, 5 proanthocyanidins and 5 flavonolignans, were detected. Multivariate statistics revealed a distinct difference in the flavonoid metabolism between Tartary and common buckwheat flowers, and both of them had unique functional metabolites. For example, common buckwheat flowers were rich in luteolin and apigenin, whereas Tartary buckwheat flowers were rich in tricin. These results provide new information regarding the flavonoid metabolites of buckwheat flowers and offer important theoretical support for the exploitation of buckwheat flowers.

Nutraceutical potential of tree flowers: A comprehensive review on biochemical profile, health benefits, and utilization.

A numerous types of tree flowers are present in nature and few of them such as Rhdodendron, Bauhinia, Mahua, Gulmohar, Palash, Sesbania, Woodfordia, Simbal, etc. are being utilized traditionally as food and medicine by the localities of India. These flowers are rich in phytochemical (flavonoids, anthocyanins, phenolic acids, carotenoids, tannins, saponins) and possessing numerous health benefits (antioxidant activity, anti-inflammation, anti-cancer activity, anti-diabetic activity, hepatoprotective activity). However, because of the low availability (i.e. short blooming period and at limited places) and poor post-harvest life, these flowers are commonly utilized by the local people as food and medicines during their respective flowering times only. A few attempts have been made toward the utilization of some tree flowers (Mahduca longifolia, Rhododendron arboretum), but others are still unexplored and need to be exploited to achieve food and nutritional security as well increase the opportunity of employment and improvement in the socio-economic status of the local tribes. Therefore, to achieve this, the present review was aimed to review and document the status of common edible tree flowers, their phytochemicals potential and, health benefits as well as their utilization as food and medicines.

Proteolytic activity, identification and expression profile of a KDEL-CysEP gene in common lilac flowers depending on the flowering conditions

In a temperate zone, common lilac blooms in May, and the whole flowering process lasts ca. 3 weeks. The flowering process starts in July of the previous year, during winter flower buds are in the state of deep dormancy, and their activity starts again in the spring of the next year. Forcing is a method, that may induce flowering in plants, independently of the natural blooming period. The temperatures required to start blooming in lilac during standard forcing method in November are ca. 37°C. This method is rapid, but gives panicles of poor quality. The alternative is forcing at 15°C, but in November plants forced by this method require 49 days to bloom as compared to 23 days for the standard 37°C. Anyway, the main advantage of this method is a very good quality of flowers and long vase life. In this study we investigated the cysteine protease activity and its expression profile at different stages of flowering (flower bud whitening and swelling, open flowers, wilted flowers) for lilac flowers (Syringa vulgaris L.) blooming under three different conditions: natural conditions in May and forcing in a greenhouse in November at 37°C (standard forcing) or at 15°C (alternative forcing). The gene expression did not correlate with the cysteine endoprotease activity. Alternative forcing method at 15°C affected the flowering process delaying senescence, presumably due to the low cysteine protease activity.

Characterization of Various Color Parameters (Anthocyanins and Flavonols) of Leaves and Flowers in Different Autochthonous Genotypes of Cyclamen purpurascens

Common cyclamen (Cyclamen pururascens Mill.) is a very interesting species not only for various breeding programs but also as an ornamental plant. The plants possess interesting floral and foliage characteristics, nice fragrances, and a very useful flavonol profile. The last is very important from the point of view of protecting against diseases and physiological disorders. Twenty-two different genotypes originating from different regions in Slovenia were analyzed in detail, based on their floral and foliage characteristics. Anthocyanin and flavonol contents were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-photodiode array-mass spectrometry (MS). Color characteristics were colorimetrically evaluated separately for petals and leaves. In terms of color measurements, significant differences among the sites of origin were shown with parameters a* and L* when petals were analyzed, and with parameter a* when leaves were analyzed. The pH of petal sap stayed within the acid range, ranging from 3.96 to 4.82. Five different anthocyanins (malvidin-3,5-diglucoside, cyanidin-3-neohesperidoside, delphinidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside, and delphinidine-3-rutinoside) were analyzed in flowers, and this is the first report of delphinidin metabolites naturally present in common cyclamen genotypes. In relation to plant leaves, malvidin-3,5-diglucoside, malvidin-3-rutinoside, malvidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-neohesperidoside, and peonidin-3-neohesperidoside were measured. Fifteen different flavonols were determined in common cyclamen flowers and 10 different flavonols in common cyclamen leaves. Various glycosides of quercetin, myricetin, and kaempferol were analyzed, as well as isorhamnetin-3-rutinoside, laricitin-3-rutinoside, and neohesperidin. The floral and foliage characteristics of the genotypes (physical and chemical) were mainly affected by the environmental conditions of the locality of origin of the genotypes (annual disposition of temperature and precipitation, structure of the soil, etc.).

Determination of essential oil component composition of common sunflower marginal flowers

Determination of essential oil component composition of common sunflower marginal flowers

Flowering Induction in Camellia chrysantha, a Golden Camellia Species, with Paclobutrazol and Urea

The flowers of Camellia chrysantha, commonly named as golden camellia, are treasured for their unique yellow color and are popularly used for tea. Compared with common camellia flowers that are either red, purple, pink, or white, golden camellia flowers are rare and are in high market demand. Our study was aimed to induce flowering in juvenile C. chrysantha grafted plants with urea and paclobutrazol (PBZ), a growth retardant. Generally, it takes 6–8 years for C. chrysantha seedlings and 5–6 years for grafted plants to set flower buds. With a 4 × 4 factorial design, four dosages of urea (1, 3, 5, or 8 g/plant) and four concentrations of PBZ (50, 150, 350, and 750 ppm) were tested on 4-year-old C. chrysantha grafted plants. Significant interaction between urea and PBZ was observed, and nine of the 16 combinations produced significantly more flower buds than the control, although not all flower buds could open because of abscission. High concentrations of PBZ and high dosages of urea were generally associated with severe defoliation and slow growth of basal stem diameter. When taking bud abscission into account, combinations of 150 ppm PBZ with 1 g urea and 350 ppm PBZ with 3 g urea resulted in significant flowering in juvenile C. chrysantha grafted plants without negative effects on vegetative growth and flower bud size and severe defoliation. This is the first report on flowering induction in a golden camellia species using juvenile plants. Our results suggest that application of optimized PBZ and urea doses can be a potential means for manipulation of early flowering in golden camellia species.

Bottom-up processes influence the demography and life-cycle phenology of Hawaiian bird communities.

Changes in climate can indirectly regulate populations at higher trophic levels by influencing the availability of food resources in the lower reaches of the food web. As such, species that rely on fruit and nectar food resources may be particularly sensitive to these bottom-up perturbations due to the strength of their trophic linkages with climatically-influenced plants. To measure the influence of climatically-mediated, bottom-up processes, we used climate, bird capture, bird count, and plant phenology data from the Big Island of Hawaii to construct a series of structural equationand abundance models. Our results suggest that fruit and nectar-eating birds arrange life cycle events around climatically-influenced food resources, while some of these same food resources also influence seasonal patterns of abundance. This trend was particularly strong for two native nectarivores, 'I'iwi and 'Apapane, where we found that the dissimilar timing of molting and breeding activity was associated with peak abundance of the two most common flowers at our study site which, in turn, were each driven by dissimilar climatic cues. Given the rapidly changing Hawaiian climate, we suggest that determining behavioral plasticity, or evolutionary capacity of birds to mitigate changes in climatically-influenced food resources, should be recognized as a future research priority.

Phenolic compounds, antioxidant potential and antiproliferative potential of 10 common edible flowers from China assessed using a simulated in vitro digestion-dialysis process combined with cellular assays.

Phenolic compounds could be sensitive to digestive conditions, thus a simulated in vitro digestion-dialysis process and cellular assays was used to determine phenolic compounds and antioxidant and antiproliferative potentials of 10 common edible flowers from China and their functional components. Gallic acid, ferulic acid, and rutin were widely present in these flowers, which demonstrated various antioxidant capacities (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP and CAA values) and antiproliferative potentials measured by the MTT method. Rosa rugosa, Paeonia suffruticosa and Osmanthus fragrans exhibited the best antioxidant and antiproliferative potentials against HepG2, A549 and SGC-7901 cell lines, except that Osmanthus fragrans was not the best against SGC-7901 cells. The in vitro digestion-dialysis process decreased the antioxidant potential by 33.95-90.72% and the antiproliferative potential by 13.22-87.15%. Following the in vitro digestion-dialysis process, phenolics were probably responsible for antioxidant (R2 = 0.794-0.924, P < 0.01) and antiproliferative (R2 = 0.408-0.623, P < 0.05) potential. Moreover, gallic acid may be responsible for the antioxidant potential of seven flowers rich in edible flowers. The antioxidant and antiproliferative potential of 10 edible flowers revealed a clear decrease after digestion and dialysis along with the reduction of phenolics. Nevertheless, they still had considerable antioxidant and antiproliferative potential, which merited further investigation in in vivo studies. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

From Lorca’s Blood Wedding: A New Translation

From Lorca’s Blood Wedding: A New Translation Sarah Arvio (bio) As both a poet and a playwright, Federico García Lorca (1898–1936) seemed to suffer with or inside others. His core aspect may be compassion—also in the sense of “with passion.” Blood Wedding was inspired by an article Lorca had read in a local newspaper: the real-life events unfolded in Almería, site of the famous Alcazaba, not far from the poet’s hometown, Granada. He carried the story around in his mind for months, then sat down and wrote out the play in the space of a few weeks. It was the first of his three rural tragedies; the others are Yerma and The House of Bernarda Alba. All three address the subjugation of women by their husbands and families. Lorca was a homosexual; he was also a humanist, a socialist—and a protofeminist. He understood the dramas of the heart and was deeply critical of the strictures of traditional Spanish society. I had read the play in translation when I was young; I recalled certain scenes, and wanted to see if I could resurrect their lush beauty. I became enchanted by the poem-songs laced into the dialogue: Lorca is singing, or crying out, a great tragic poem. The play both talks and sings, but even the talking sings. His language has the lushness, variety, and suppleness of a modern Shakespeare. Lorca wrote with such ease, and with such an immaculate ear, that at first I didn’t notice that he was sometimes writing in form. From the start of his writing life, he experimented with form; over time, he became a master prosodist, flitting back and forth effortlessly between free and formal verse. [End Page 438] In Blood Wedding, the poem-songs are rendered in a range of different meters. Spanish prosody divides its patterns between arte menor (“lesser art,” in counts of eight syllables or fewer: often jocular, ironic, humorous) and arte mayor (“greater art,” in counts of nine syllables or more: solemn, majestic, profound). The chosen meter is related to mood and meaning. This play presents the full range, from low to high—often slipping from formal to free verse; his unmetered last song in the last act might be likened to a sort of flamenco jazz. My approach in translating the poem-songs has been to reflect or replicate mood and rhythms—in loose accentual patterns—without attempting a syllable count. It may also be interesting to know, with regard to the musical qualities of Lorca’s poetry, that in his young years the poet had planned to be a composer; he turned to writing later. He was also a pianist, often entertaining friends and family deep into the night. Though he reportedly did not have a fine voice (no voice recording has survived), the passion of his performances enchanted all. He had a huge repertoire, with a special interest in Spanish folk songs and flamenco cante. I’m offering here Act One, Scene Two, and Act Three, Scene One—two scenes rich in poem-song. In 1.2 the lullaby “of the little boy” is an ominous, dark little song that foretells the anguish and terror of the drama to come. It’s hexasyllabic, and also a spin on a traditional Spanish lullaby. The baby is an emblem of the union that is about to break. In 3.1, when the Moon’s song rises in the woods, she is speaking in paced, measured octosyllables. The Beggar answers in hendecasyllables, and the Moon replies in alejandrinos. Theirs are voices of malice and omniscience, taking pleasure in the blood tragedy, egging each other on. As Leonardo and the bride flee, they slip in and out of desperate panicked octosyllables. There’s a kind of exaltation in the language that beautifies the tragedy. As I suggest in my introduction to Poet in Spain: New Translations, (Knopf 2017), Blood Wedding can be read as quaint local color; it might also be read as a modernist masterpiece and an exercise in style. [End Page 439] ACT ONE SCENE TWO Room painted pink, with copper pots and bunches of common flowers. In the center...

Crepuscular pollination and reproductive ecology of Trembleya laniflora (Melastomataceae), an endemic species in mountain rupestrian grasslands

The “pollination syndrome” hypothesis predicts a direct relationship between a set of floral characters and the principal pollinating agent. The presence of flowers with poricidal anthers, heterostemony and pollen as the only reward are common traits in Melastomataceae species and are associated with buzz pollination by bees. Trembleya laniflora Cong. (Melastomataceae: Microlicieae) is an endemic species from campo rupestre tropical grassland, with large and white “pollen flowers” differing from the common purple-colored flowers of the Tribe. We examine the relationship between the distinct floral characteristics of T. laniflora and its pollination syndrome and reproduction ecology. We observed different individuals of T. laniflora randomly sampled in Serra do Cipó, Espinhaço Range, Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. We carried out observations on their reproductive phenology (31 individuals), flower biology (3), pollination (23), and tested the reproductive system (29). Trembleya laniflora presented a seasonal flowering pattern in the dry and post-dry seasons (May–October) and set fruits during the dry, post-dry and rainy seasons (June–December). Floral aperture occurred mainly during the night and the first hours of the morning, the period with the greatest availability of fresh flowers and with the highest visitation by Xylocopa bimaculata. Tests identified the species as non-apomictic, self-incompatible and dependent on large bees such as Xylocopa, Bombus, Centris and Ptiloglossa for pollination. Trembleya laniflora showed a specialized pollination system mediated by a restricted group of bees that perform crepuscular buzz pollination. Floral characteristics and reproductive biology of T. laniflora are likely adaptive responses to pollination by large bees foraging during the crepuscular hours. Our results support the “pollination syndrome” hypothesis, demonstrating a direct relationship between a set of floral characters and the principal pollinators of the species. Dependence on interbreeding may promote outcrossing within and among the endemic populations, naturally isolated on rocky outcrops.

Greenhouse wastewater treatment by baffled subsurface-flow constructed wetlands supplemented with flower straws as carbon source in different modes.

Four laboratory-scale baffled subsurface-flow constructed wetlands (BSCWs) were established for the treatment of greenhouse wastewater containing high levels of nitrate and sulfate in the present study. Each BSCW microcosm involved a treatment zone and another post-treatment zone with a surface area ratio of 2:1. Evenly mixed straws of carnation and rose (w/w: 1/1), two common ornamental flowers, were supplemented as an organic carbon source into the treatment zone through a hydrolysis zone (CW 1), decentralized vertically installed perforated pipes (CW 2), and centralized pipes (CW 3 in the figures), except the blank system. Removals and transformations of nitrogen and sulfate as well as carbon release in the BSCWs were investigated and comparatively assessed. Results showed that the supplements of flower straws could greatly enhance both the nitrate and sulfate removals, and good performance was achieved during the beginning operation period of 30days, followed by decline due to insufficient organic carbon supply. Nitrate removal efficiency was significantly higher and more stable compared to sulfate. The highest removal rates of nitrate and sulfate were achieved in the CW 3, with a mean value of 4.33g NO3--N·m-2d-1 and 2.74g SO42--S·m-2d-1, respectively, although the differences among the experimental microcosms were not statistically significant. However, almost the same TN removal rate (3.40-3.47gN·m-2d-1) was obtained due to the productions of NO2--N and NH4+-N and leaching of organic N from the straws. High contents of organic carbon and colored substance were leached from the straws during the initial 10days, but dropped rapidly to low levels, and could hardly determined after 30days operation. The post-treatment zone could further eliminate various contaminants, but the capability was limited. Inorganic carbon (IC) concentration was detected to be a highly good indicator for the estimation of nitrate and sulfate removal efficiencies of the BSCWs, particularly for nitrate.

Development of method for quantitative determination of phenolic compounds in tansy flowers

Large assortment of wild herbs is being used for treatment and manufacturing of herbal remedies, and common tansy is among them. Limited number of remedies containing tansy flowers in the domestic market, as well as the absence of modern national requirements regulating quality of this product, points to the relevance of research devoted to development of the quality control methods of both tansy herbal material, and remedies on its basis.Aim. Development of harmonized with PhEur method for quantitative analysis of flavonoids in tansy flowers by spectroscopy method.Methods. To achieve our aim, a standardized spectroscopy method, described in the State Pharmacopoeia of Ukraine (SPhU) monographs for quantitative determination of the sum of flavonoids in different types of herbal material, was used. Determination of validation characteristics was carried out for the studied type of herbal material.Results. Spectroscopy method for quantitative determination of flavonoids calculated as lutheoline in tansy flowers, considering modern approaches and standardization requirements of the SPhU for herbs, was developed. The developed method was standardized, that is one of requirements for methods for quantitative determination of biologically active substances in herbal material, provided for implementation in the SPhU monographs.Conclusion. Spectroscopy method for quantitative determination of flavonoids calculated as lutheoline in common tansy flowers, harmonized with PhEur, was developed for the first time. The method was suggested for implementation in the draft monograph “Common tansy flowers” in assay section

Phytochemical Content, Health Benefits, and Toxicology of Common Edible Flowers: A Review (2000–2015)

Edible flowers contain numerous phytochemicals which contribute to their health benefits, and consumption of edible flowers has increased significantly in recent years. While many researchers have been conducted, no literature review of the health benefits of common edible flowers and their phytochemicals has been compiled. This review aimed to present the findings of research conducted from 2000 to 2015 on the species, traditional application, phytochemicals, health benefits, and the toxicology of common edible flowers. It was found in 15 species of common edible flowers that four flavonols, three flavones, four flavanols, three anthocyanins, three phenolic acids and their derivatives were common phytochemicals and they contributed to the health benefits such as anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, and neuroprotective effect. Toxicology studies have been conducted to evaluate the safety of common edible flowers and provide information on their dosages and usages.

What Nutritional Contribution Do Edible Flowers Make?

When one thinks of the term “edible portion” or the part of the food commonly eaten, flowers of ornamental plants may not automatically come to mind. Historically, however, flower cookery has been traced back to civilizations of antiquity. The culinary use of flowers has varied from culture to culture. The Chinese incorporated flowers as ingredients in a wide variety of recipes, and flower usage can be traced back as far as 3000 BCE. Early reports indicate that in Ancient Rome, the edible flowers of violets and roses were used in dishes, and lavender was used in sauces.1Stradley L. Edible flowers are the new rage in haute cuisine. What's Cooking America website. http://whatscookingamerica.net/EdibleFlowers/EdibleFlowersMain.htm. Accessed February 27, 2015.Google Scholar, 2Gardner Z. McGuffin M. American Herbal Products Association’s Botanical Safety Handbook. 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL2013Google Scholar The large blossoms produced by pumpkin and squash plants have a long history as a popular food among Native Americans. The Zuni tribe was particularly known for their love of squash blossoms. Blossoms were gathered in the morning before the flowers opened, and eaten fresh, fried, added to soup, or dried and saved for winter.3Murphy H. Foods indigenous to the Western hemisphere. American Indian Health and Diet Project. http://www.aihd.ku.edu/foods/squash.html. Accessed February 27, 2015.Google Scholar Edible flowers were especially popular in the Victorian era in England. After falling out of favor for many years, cooking and garnishing with flowers is enjoying a revival. The renewed interest in cooking and garnishing with flowers has also prompted the interest of researchers in the nutritive value of edible flowers. Rop and colleagues, who recently wrote that the global demand for more attractive and tasty food could be enhanced by edible flowers, completed a study focusing on the nutritive value of 12 species of edible flowers of ornamental plants.4Rop O. Mlcek J. Jurikova T. Neugebauerova J. Vabkova J. Edible flowers—A new promising source of mineral elements in human nutrition.Molecules. 2012; 17: 6672-6683Crossref PubMed Scopus (135) Google Scholar They found the flower species with the highest mineral content were chrysanthemum, dianthus, or viola. The most abundant element was potassium. As the colors of fruits and vegetables suggest the presence of phytochemicals, so do the colors of edible flowers. One class of non-nutritive health-promoting compounds in flowers receiving recent attention is polyphenols or phenolics. A study published in the Journal of Food Science on common edible flowers in China found that some of the flowers were rich in polyphenols, which are known to have biological activity and high antioxidant capacity.5Xiong L. Yang J. Jiang Y. et al.Phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacities of 10 common edible flowers from China.J Food Sci. 2014; 79: C517-C525Crossref PubMed Scopus (59) Google Scholar As research further defines the health benefits of physiologically active components in flowers, they may, as the researchers suggest, have the potential to be used as an additive in foods to help prevent chronic disease and prevent food oxidation. The US Department of Agriculture Nutrient Database includes nutrient composition information for some edible flowers, including pumpkin flowers, sesbania flower, broccoli flower clusters, and white-flowered calabash.6US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 27. http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=8964. Accessed March 8, 2015.Google Scholar One of the biggest concerns regarding edible flowers is whether they are safe to consume. Fortunately, some of the Cooperative Extension offices available through more than 100 land-grant universities have resources to guide consumers on this topic. Edible flowers can add distinctive flavor and a unique splash of color to foods, but not all flowers are safe to eat. While many flowers are safe and edible, including the flowers of most culinary herbs, proper identification is essential. Flowers from florists, nurseries, or garden centers may have been treated with pesticides not labeled for food crops and should not be used even as a garnish. People with hay fever, asthma, or allergies should be cautious because allergic reactions can be triggered by the pollen of specific plants. Clients may want to grow their own edible flowers, but they are increasingly found at gourmet food shops, farmers’ markets, and other specialty shops, as well as online.7Lauderdale C, Bradley L. Choosing and Using Edible Flowers. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service; 2014. http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/choosing-and-using-edible-flowers-ag-790.pdf. Accessed February 27, 2015.Google Scholar Considering that edible flower consumption is on the upswing, further research is warranted into their nutritive and non-nutritive value, as well as other potentially beneficial compounds they may contain.

Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Capacities of 10 Common Edible Flowers from China

The free and bound phenolic compounds in 10 common Chinese edible flowers were investigated using reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Their antioxidant capacities were evaluated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging activity, 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) radical-scavenging activity, oxygen radical absorption capacity (ORAC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and cellular antioxidant activity (CAA). Free factions were more prominent in phenolic content and antioxidant capacity than bound fractions. Paeonia suffruticosa and Flos lonicerae showed the highest total phenolic content (TPC) 235.5 mg chlorogenic acid equivalents/g of dry weight and total flavonoid content 89.38 mg rutin equivalents/g of dry weight. The major phenolic compounds identified were gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, and rutin. P. suffruticosa had the highest antioxidant capacity in the DPPH, ABTS, and ORAC assays, which were 1028, 2065, 990 μmol Trolox equivalents/g of dry weight, respectively, whereas Rosa chinensis had the highest FRAP value (2645 μmol Fe(2+) equivalents /g of dry weight). The P. suffruticosa soluble phenolics had the highest CAA, with the median effective dose (EC50 ) 26.7 and 153 μmol quercetin equivalents/100 g of dry weight in the phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and no PBS wash protocol, respectively. TPC was strongly correlated with antioxidant capacity (R = 0.8443 to 0.9978, P < 0.01), which indicated that phenolics were the major contributors to the antioxidant activity of the selected edible flowers.