Common Adulterants Research Articles

The potential of electrochemical sensors to unveil counterfeits: Xanax as a case study

The illicit drug market has been constantly evolving in the last decades, with a significant rise in counterfeit medicines posing serious public health risks. Benzodiazepines (BZDs) such as alprazolam (generally sold under the brand name Xanax), have particularly become the target of counterfeiting efforts due to their addictive nature and upsurge of unregulated designer BZDs. These counterfeit versions frequently resemble legitimate products but contain harmful adulterants or other potent illicit substances. Few methods have been developed to tackle counterfeit pills, usually limited to accurate and sophisticated laboratory equipment. This study explores the feasibility of combining electrochemical fingerprinting with data analysis to overcome the limitations of traditional methods. First, the electrochemical behavior of selected BZDs is studied, and analytical parameters such as pH are optimized. Then, the electroanalysis of common adulterants and illicit drugs is addressed and integrated into a user-friendly app, including a flowchart system. The proposed electrochemical strategy enables the detection of counterfeit Xanax by identifying the presence or absence of alprazolam. It also allows determination of the alprazolam content within a pill while meeting the fundamental requirements of the end users. This study represents an on-site methodology to address the growing challenges posed by BZDs, easily transferable to counterfeit medicines from other drug groups.

Authentication of oats and discrimination from their gluten-containing adulterants using NIR diffuse reflectance spectroscopy and multivariate analysis

Oat (Avena sativa L.) is recognized for its nutritional value and gluten-free status, however, ensuring its authenticity and purity is crucial, given the potential for contamination with gluten-containing grains. In this study, near-infrared spectroscopy coupled with chemometrics were employed to authenticate oat flour (from different forms of oat; oat groats, steel-cut and rolled oats) and distinguish it from common gluten-containing adulterants including wheat, farro, triticale, barley, rye, and ryegrass. Both unsupervised and supervised chemometric methodologies, encompassing PCA, SIMCA, and OPLS-DA, were applied. Both SIMCA and OPLS-DA models displayed 100% sensitivity, enabling reliable identification of oat flour and detection of potential adulteration with these gluten-containing grains with specificity of 97.78% and 100%, respectively. In the SIMCA model for oat groats and adulterated mixtures, samples with 1% and 2% adulteration were incorrectly classified as oat groats, yet successful discrimination from deliberately-adulterated mixtures was accomplished through the OPLS-DA model with 100% specificity. Moreover, PLS regression analysis was employed to precisely quantify the levels of adulterants in oat groats flour. The models exhibited reliable performance, as reflected in Root Mean Square Error of Calibration (RMSEC) values. Validation of these models using test samples provided further confirmation of their efficacy in detecting sample adulteration and ensuring product authenticity, all while maintaining a high sample throughput rate.

Untargeted Metabolomics Based on Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Quadrupole Orbitrap High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry for Differential Metabolite Analysis of Pinelliae Rhizoma and Its Adulterants.

The present study investigates the chemical composition variances among Pinelliae Rhizoma, a widely used Chinese herbal medicine, and its common adulterants including Typhonium flagelliforme, Arisaema erubescens, and Pinellia pedatisecta. Utilizing the non-targeted metabolomics technique of employing UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS, this research aims to comprehensively delineate the metabolic profiles of Pinelliae Rhizoma and its adulterants. Multivariate statistical methods including PCA and OPLS-DA are employed for the identification of differential metabolites. Volcano plot analysis is utilized to discern upregulated and downregulated compounds. KEGG pathway analysis is conducted to elucidate the differences in metabolic pathways associated with these compounds, and significant pathway enrichment analysis is performed. A total of 769 compounds are identified through metabolomics analysis, with alkaloids being predominant, followed by lipids and lipid molecules. Significant differential metabolites were screened out based on VIP > 1 and p-value < 0.05 criteria, followed by KEGG enrichment analysis of these differential metabolites. Differential metabolites between Pinelliae Rhizoma and Typhonium flagelliforme, as well as between Pinelliae Rhizoma and Pinellia pedatisecta, are significantly enriched in the biosynthesis of amino acids and protein digestion and absorption pathways. Differential metabolites between Pinelliae Rhizoma and Arisaema erubescens are mainly enriched in tyrosine metabolism and phenylalanine metabolism pathways. These findings aim to provide valuable data support and theoretical references for further research on the pharmacological substances, resource development and utilization, and quality control of Pinelliae Rhizoma.

Rapid molecular identification of Rana dybowskii by species-specific primers

Oviductus Ranae is the dried oviduct from Rana dybowskii, a forest frog species with medicinal, tonic, and cosmetic properties. Due to the high price and resource shortage, counterfeit varieties of Oviductus Ranae often appear in the market. However, traditional identification methods cannot accurately differentiate between Oviductus Ranae and its adulterants. In this study, a rapid molecular identification method has been established. The method involves extracting genomic DNA in just 30 s using filter paper purification, species-specific rapid polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification, and finally, fluorescence detection of the products. It can accurately identify Oviductus Ranae and its three common adulterants in about 30 min, making the process simple, fast, and highly specific.

Rapid Characterization of Undeclared Pharmaceuticals in Herbal Preparations by Ambient Ionization Mass Spectrometry for Emergency Care.

In Asia, some herbal preparations have been found to be adulterated with undeclared synthetic medicines to increase their therapeutic efficiency. Many of these adulterants were found to be toxic when overdosed and have been documented to bring about severe, even life-threatening acute poisoning events. The objective of this study is to develop a rapid and sensitive ambient ionization mass spectrometric platform to characterize the undeclared toxic adulterated ingredients in herbal preparations. Several common adulterants were spiked into different herbal preparations and human sera to simulate the clinical conditions of acute poisoning. They were then sampled with a metallic probe and analyzed by the thermal desorption-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. The experimental parameters including sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and turnaround time were prudently optimized in this study. Since tedious and time-consuming pretreatment of the sample is unnecessary, the toxic adulterants could be characterized within 60 s. The results can help emergency physicians to make clinical judgments and prescribe appropriate antidotes or supportive treatment in a time-sensitive manner.

A joint macro and microscopic authentication key for pharmacognostic analysis of croci sativi stigma and its common adulterants on the bulgarian market

A joint macro and microscopic authentication key for pharmacognostic analysis of croci sativi stigma and its common adulterants on the bulgarian market

Identification of lyophilized avocado powder adulteration using the cavity perturbation technique at microwave frequencies

In this paper, we propose the cavity perturbation technique using a high Q cylindrical cavity at 2.4 GHz to identify adulteration of dry-freeze avocado powder with two of the most common adulterants (chickpea powder and green color). Three different adulteration conditions are explored, namely, avocado powder mixed with color, avocado powder mixed with chickpea powder, and avocado powder mixed with 50% colour–50% powder, at various contamination ratios (100, 90, 77, 62, 50, and 0%). For all cases, the perturbation technique shows clear linear quadratic regression trends that make adulteration identification possible.

Adulterants present in the San Diego county fentanyl supply: a laboratory analysis of seized law enforcement samples

BackgroundThe opioid overdose crisis is one of the worst public health crises ever to face the US and emerging evidence suggests its effects are compounded by the presence of drug adulterants. Here we report our efforts to characterize the adulterants present within the local fentanyl supply of San Diego County, obtained from undifferentiated drug samples seized by local law enforcement over the calendar year 2021.MethodsThirty-two participating local law enforcement agencies across San Diego submitted 4838 unknown individual illicit drug samples (total of 312 kg) to the San Diego County Sheriff’s Department Regional Crime Laboratory for identification.ResultsQualitative analysis of these samples via FTIR and GC-MS identified methamphetamine (38.7%), fentanyl (20.8%), diacetylmorphine (heroin) (10.2%), codeine (5.8%) and alprazolam (4.3%) as the most common illicit substances and the presence of 52 unique adulterants. The most common adulterants included 4-methylaminoantipyrine (4-MAAP) (10.9%), mannitol (9%), acetaminophen (8.5%), methamphetamine (4.2%), diacetylmorphine (heroin) (3.6%), tramadol (1.9%), and xylazine (1.7%). Several additional pharmacologically active adulterants and contaminants of interest were also identified.ConclusionThis analysis is vital for public health use and harm reduction efforts at the level of the individual consumer. Continued direct surveillance of the drug supply is necessary for the detection of potentially harmful adulterants that may pose serious threats to the public.

Detection of Adulterant Residues in UHT Milk Products using ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy

Milk adulteration has been done to gain economic benefit by which the quality of milk is purposely compromised either by combining or substituting important ingredients of milk with adulterants. The objectives of this study were to determine the milk quality parameters of adulterated and unadulterated milk products through quality analysis and to investigate the ATR-FTIR spectroscopy technique in detection of adulterant residues in milk products. UHT milk samples were used with three common adulterants (melamine, formalin, anionic detergent) in five different concentrations (0.2%, 0.8%, 1.2%, 1.5% and 2.0%). Quality analysis was done on unadulterated milk and adulterated milk samples. Results showed that there were no significant differences between them. Thus, ATR-FTIR spectroscopic analysis was used for the qualification of adulterants in the wavenumber range of 4000 to 500. These results show the potential of FTIR spectroscopy as a rapid and sensitive technique for the detection of adulterant residues in UHT milk products.

Detection of common adulterants in bulk bovine milk using fourier transformed mid-infrared spectroscopy

Fourier transformed mid-infrared spectroscopy is a widespread method for routine analysis in milk. This method can also be used for the detection of adulterants in bovine milk which represent a current risk for dairy industries and public health. This work focuses on the detection of seven adulterants present in three known concentrations in bulk milk sample. The adulterants were: sodium bicarbonate, sodium chloride, hydroxyproline, glucose, sodium citrate, water, and urea. Partial least squares – discriminant analysis was used to develop statistical models to predict the presence of adulterants in milk samples. The obtained models could provide an easy, efficient, and rapid tool for the dairy industry to detect specific adulterants in milk.

Detecting Olive Oil Fraud with Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Chemometrics: A Modern Safety Control Approach

Background: Olive oil is one of the most essential components of the Mediterranean diet, obtained by mechanical extraction from the Olea europaea tree. Based on organoleptic properties (odor and taste) and the amount of free fatty acids, it is divided into three categories: Olive oil, virgin olive oil, and extra virgin olive oil. Due to the expensive production procedure of extra virgin olive oil, it is prone to adulteration with low-quality olive oils and other vegetable oils. Objectives: The current study focused on determining the authenticity of olive oil using near-infrared spectroscopy as a non-destructive method in conjunction with chemometrics. Methods: In this study, 100 samples of olive oils, comprising 34 domestic and 66 industrial olive oils, were purchased from the markets of Tehran and Roudbar. Common adulterants such as corn, canola, sunflower, and soybean oils were considered. Binary and ternary mixtures of olive oil with these vegetable oils were prepared and analyzed. Spectra were collected over the range of 12000 cm-1 to 4000 cm-1, and the data were preprocessed using SNV and Detrend before principal component analysis (PCA). Results: The results indicated that corn oil and canola oil were the dominant adulterants in the olive oil samples, likely due to their inexpensiveness and availability in Iran. Conclusions: Since multiple types of fraud were identified in the examined samples, it is recommended that future studies investigate other forms of fraud simultaneously. Additionally, the results demonstrated that principal component analysis could effectively categorize different samples with acceptable discrimination.

Evaluating the rate of reversal of fentanyl-induced respiratory depression using a novel long-acting naloxone nanoparticle, cNLX-NP.

Fentanyl and fentanyl analogs (F/FA) have become increasingly common adulterants in counterfeit prescription pills and illicit street drug mixtures due to their ease of synthesis and exceedingly high potency. The ongoing epidemic of fatal overdoses fueled by F/FA continues to highlight the need for longer-acting therapies than naloxone (NLX), the current gold-standard for reversing opioid overdoses, which shows limited efficacy to prevent renarcotization associated with F/FA toxicity. A novel opioid reversal agent based on covalent naloxone nanoparticles (cNLX-NP) has been shown to blunt fentanyl-induced respiratory depression out to 48 hr, demonstrating its potential therapeutic utility. The purpose of this study was to characterize how rapidly cNLX-NP reverses fentanyl-induced respiratory effects as well as the duration of its protective effects. Sprague Dawley male rats (n=6/group) were tested on an oximeter for baseline percent arterial oxygen saturation (%SaO2) challenged with 0.1 mg/kg SC fentanyl and 15min later given 10 mg/kg IM doses of NLX, nalmefene (NLMF), or cNLX-NP and continuously monitored via oximetry for 10 minutes. One week later the experiment was repeated using a 1:1 mixture of NLX:cNLX-NP as the reversal agent in the rats that previously received NLX alone. While both NLX and NLMF rapidly reversed %SaO2 to baseline within 1min, rats that received cNLX-NP did not return to >90% SaO2 levels until 9min after administration. Similarly, heart and breath rates returned to baseline within 1min of treatment with NLX and NLMF but did not return to baseline until 10 minutes after cNLX-NP administration. In contrast, NLX:cNLX-NP reversed all fentanyl-induced respiratory depressive effects within one minute. While cNLX-NP alone may not sufficiently reverse F/FA overdose in a timely manner, mixing free NLX with cNLX-NP can provide a mechanism to both rapidly reverse fentanyl-related effects and maintain extended protection against synthetic opioid toxicity. These data support further development of cNLX-NP as a fast-acting and long-lasting antidote to treat F/FA-induced respiratory depression and overdose, and potentially prevent renarcotization in humans.

An Overview on Pharmacological Activity of Tinospora Cordifolia

Giloy, also known as Tinospora cordifolia, occupies a significant place among traditional medicine systems. This review is a complete embodiment of the diversity of the subject matter starting with its botanical meaning and refined taxonomy which are complemented by an introduction on vernacular names. In addition, it examines the intricate maze of giloy’s chemical constituents thereby laying the groundwork for understanding its molecular structure.This review brings together literature on different preparations presenting a holistic view of how Tinospora cordifolia is used in therapeutic applications. The paper explores its pharmacological actions that are all-purpose and therefore seeks to find out whether these actions are effective in different areas including antioxidant effects, anti-cancer and anti-diabetic properties, immune modulation mechanisms, wound healing mechanisms. At the same time, the toxicological aspects of giloy are analyzed in order to provide an unbiased view on its safety concerns. Furthermore, potential adulteration issues and common adulterants have been thoroughly discussed while critically assessing challenges related to use of giloy.In summing up, this article not only compiles current knowledge but also discloses some light into what Tinospora cordifolia is now about and might be tomorrow in relation to medicine

Qualitative Assessment for Milk Adulteration: Extent, Common Adulterants, and Utility of Rapid Tests.

The adulteration of milk is an important issue that needs to be addressed because of its deleterious effects on health. Detection of adulterants in milk can be done in laboratories or by purchasing adulteration detection kits. There are few home-based rapid tests to detect common milk adulterants, which are less known by our community. Objectives of this study were to estimate the proportion of milk adulteration and to identify common adulterants, to determine the association of milk adulteration with gastrointestinal and renal diseases; and also to validate rapid home-based tests by comparing its result with standard milk adulteration detection kit. A community-based study was conducted on 330 medical and paramedical staff. Collected milk samples during family visits were tested by standard milk adulteration detection tests and rapid home-based tests. Among 330 tested milk samples, 233 samples were adulterated with one or more than one adulterant. The most common adulteration observed was the addition of water to milk, followed by detergent, urea, and neutralizer. The specificity of the rapid tests was found to be almost 100% in the detection of water and detergent in milk and accuracy was above 80%; with "substantial agreement" (kappa = 0.7) between rapid tests and standard tests on kappa statistics. The present study has identified a large extent of milk adulteration and common adulterants, which may have harmful effects on health. The utility of home-based rapid tests is clearly proven to detect common adulterants.

Mucocutaneous Manifestations of Recreational Drug Use.

Recreational drug use is increasingly common in the dermatology patient population and is often associated with both general and specific mucocutaneous manifestations. Signs of substance use disorder may include changes to general appearance, skin, and mucosal findings associated with particular routes of drug administration (injection, insufflation, or inhalation) or findings specific to a particular drug. In this review article, we provide an overview of the mucocutaneous manifestations of illicit drug use including cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin, hallucinogens, marijuana, and common adulterants to facilitate the identification and improved care of these patients with the goal being to connect this patient population with appropriate resources for treatment.

Comparative analysis of medicinal plants Scutellaria baicalensis and common adulterants based on chloroplast genome sequencing

BackgroundScutellaria baicalensis Georgi has been extensively used as a medicinal herb in China for over 2000 years. They may be intentionally or inadvertently substituted or blended with comparable species in the local market, threatening clinical medication safety. Molecular markers are effective tools to prevent misidentification and eliminate doping and falsification among Scutellaria plants. This study screened four highly variable regions to identify Scutellaria and its adulterants. In addition, a phylogenetic analysis was performed using the complete cp genome combined with published Scutellaria species samples. Moreover, a comparative analysis of the cp genomes was conducted to investigate the cp genome evolution of S. baicalensis.ResultsThe complete cp genome of five species of Scutellaria was sequenced for the first time, and four previously published Scutellaria species were re-sequenced. They all exhibited a conserved quadripartite structure in their cp genomes, including two distinct regions, namely a small and large single copy region, respectively, and two inverted repeats encompassing the majority of ribosomal RNA genes. Furthermore, the nine species exhibited high conservation from aspects of the genome structure, codon usage, repeat sequences, and gene content. Four highly variable regions (matK-rps16, ndhC-trnV-UAC, psbE-petL, and rps16-trnQ-UUG) may function as potential molecular markers for differentiating S. baicalensis from its adulterants. Additionally, the monophyly of Scutellaria was ascertained and could be reclassified into two subgenera, subgenus Anaspis and subgenus Scutellaria, as evidenced by the phylogenetic analyses on sequences of cp genome and shared protein-coding sequences. According to the molecular clock analysis, it has been inferred that the divergence of Scutellaria occurred at approximately 4.0 Mya during the Pliocene Epoch.ConclusionOur study provides an invaluable theoretical basis for further Scutellaria species identification, phylogenetics, and evolution analysis.

Complete chloroplast genomes of eight Artemisia species: Comparative analysis, molecular identification, and phylogenetic analysis.

Artemisia L. is the largest genus in the Asteraceae, and well known for its high medicinal value. The morphological features of Artemisia species are similar, making taxonomic identification and evolutionary research difficult. We sequenced chloroplast genomes of eight Artemisia species, all of which are common adulterants of A. argyi. We used novel genetic data and compared these data to the published A. argyi chloroplast genome in to develop molecular markers for species identification and reconstructing phylogenetic relationships between Artemisia species. The eight chloroplast sequences were highly similar in gene order, content, and structure, encoding a total of 114 genes (82 protein-coding genes, 28 tRNAs, and four rRNAs). All species harboured similar repeat sequences and simple sequence repeats (SSRs), ranging from 47 to 49 and 38 to 40 repeats, respectively. In addition, we identified five hypervariable regions (rpl32-trnL, rps16-trnQ, petN-psbM, trnE-rpoB, and atpA-trnR) and ten variable coding genes (ycf1, psbG, rpl36, psaC, psaI, accD, psbT, ndhD, ndhE, and psbH), which can be used to develop chloroplast molecular markers. Finally, phylogenetic reconstructions based on six datasets produced similar topologies, revealing A. argyi is closely related to species often found as adulterants, as expected. Our research provides valuable new information on the evolution and phylogenetic relationships between Artemisia chloroplast genomes and identifies valuable molecular makers to distinguish it from closely related species.

Simple and selective screening method for the synthetic cathinone MDPT in forensic samples using carbon nanofiber screen-printed electrodes

3′,4′-Methylenedioxy-N-tert-butylcathinone (MDPT), also known as tBuONE or D-Tertylone, is a synthetic cathinone (SC) frequently abused for recreational purposes due to its potent stimulant effects and similarity to illegal substances like methamphetamine and ecstasy. The structural diversity and rapid introduction of new SC analogs to the market poses significant challenges for law enforcement and analytical methods for preliminary screening of illicit drugs. In this work, we present, for the first time, the electrochemical detection of MDPT using screen-printed electrodes modified with carbon nanofibers (SPE-CNF). MDPT exhibited three electrochemical processes (two oxidations and one reduction) on SPE-CNF. The proposed method for MDPT detection was optimized in 0.2 mol L−1 Britton-Robinson buffer solution at pH 10.0 using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). The SPE-CNF showed a high stability for electrochemical responses of all redox processes of MDPT using the same or different electrodes, with relative standard deviations less than 4.7% and 1.5% (N = 3) for peak currents and peak potentials, respectively. Moreover, the proposed method provided a wide linear range for MDPT determination (0.90–112 μmol L−1) with low LOD (0.26 μmol L−1). Interference studies for two common adulterants, caffeine and paracetamol, and ten other illicit drugs, including amphetamine-like compounds and different SCs, showed that the proposed sensor is highly selective for the preliminarily identification of MDPT in seized forensic samples. Therefore, SPE-CNF with DPV can be successfully applied as a fast and simple screening method for MDPT identification in forensic analysis, addressing the significant challenges posed by the structural diversity of SCs.

A simple smartphone-assisted paper-based colorimetric biosensor for the detection of urea adulteration in milk based on an environment-friendly pH-sensitive nanocomposite

Urea is a common milk adulterant that falsely increases its protein content. Excessive consumption of urea is harmful to the kidney, liver, and gastrointestinal system. The conventional methods for urea detection in milk are time-consuming, costly, and require highly skilled operators. So, there is an increasing demand for the development of rapid, convenient, and cost-efficient methods for the detection of urea adulteration in milk. Herein, we report a novel colorimetric paper-based urea biosensor, consisting of a novel environment-friendly nanocomposite of halloysite nanotubes (HNT), that urease enzyme and an anthocyanin-rich extract, as a natural pH indicator are simultaneously immobilized into its internal and external surfaces. The biosensing mechanism of this biosensor is based on anthocyanin color change, which occurs due to urease-mediated hydrolysis of urea and pH increment of the environment. The colorimetric signal of this biosensor is measured through smartphone-assisted analysis of the mean RGB (Red-Green-Blue) intensity of samples and is capable of detecting urea with a detection limit of 0.2 mM, and a linear range from 0.5 to 100 mM. This biosensor has demonstrated promising results for the detection of urea in milk samples, in the presence of other milk adulterants and interferents.

Comparative analysis of chloroplast genome and new insights into phylogenetic relationships of Ajuga and common adulterants.

The potential contamination of herbal medicinal products poses a significant concern for consumer health. Given the limited availability of genetic information concerning Ajuga species, it becomes imperative to incorporate supplementary molecular markers to enhance and ensure accurate species identification. In this study, the chloroplast (cp) genomes of seven species of the genus Ajuag were sequenced, de novo assembled and characterized. exhibiting lengths ranging from 150,342 bp to 150,472 bp, encompassing 86 - 88 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 35 - 37 transfer RNA, and eight ribosomal RNA. The repetitive sequences, codon uses, and cp genomes of seven species were highly conserved, and PCGs were the reliable molecular markers for investigating the phylogenetic relationship within the Ajuga genus. Moreover, four mutation hotspot regions (accD-psaI, atpH-atpI, ndhC-trnV(UAC), and ndhF-rpl23) were identified within cp genomes of Ajuga, which could help distinguish A. bracteosa and its contaminants. Based on cp genomes and PCGs, the phylogenetic tree preliminary confirmed the position of Ajuga within the Lamiaceae family. It strongly supported a sister relationship between Subsect. Genevense and Subsect. Biflorae, suggesting the merger of Subsect. Biflorae and Subsect. Genevenses into one group rather than maintaining separate categorizations. Additionally, molecular clock analysis estimated the divergence time of Ajuga to be around 7.78 million years ago. The species authentication, phylogeny, and evolution analyses of the Ajuga species may benefit from the above findings.