Committee Of Ministers Research Articles

Penitentiary probation as a mechanism to prevent the commission of repeated criminal offenses

The article examines penitentiary probation as a mechanism to prevent the commission of repeated criminal offenses. The author paid attention to the analysis of international and national legislation, which enshrines the concept of penitentiary probation and the procedure for its implementation in relation to persons sentenced to restriction of liberty and imprisonment. The adoption of the Law of Ukraine “On Probation” and the establishment of a probation service in Ukraine served to introduce one of the types of probation - penitentiary, as one of the requirements of international organizations. In particular, the implementation of Recommendations CM \ Rec (2010) of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the Council of Europe Rules on Probation concerned the purpose of probation by preventing and reducing crime. To achieve this goal, namely to reduce the commission of repeated criminal offenses, it is necessary to establish a positive relationship with the offender and provide social assistance by returning him to public life. 
 According to the Law of Ukraine “Of Probation”, the main purpose of probation is to prepare persons serving a sentence of restriction of liberty or imprisonment for a certain period of time for release for the purpose of employment of such persons after release at their chosen place of residence. Penitentiary probation should ensure that the convict is provided with a range of social services that will prepare him for release from prison with further adaptation and return to society as a full member. Restoration of the social status of the released person and provision of psychological assistance will help prevent the commission of new criminal offenses. To ensure the restoration of this status, the relevant authorities must clarify the need of the convict after his release from prison. In particular, if necessary, provide social assistance, which may be manifested in the provision of housing, employment, assistance in obtaining a profession, recovery of documents, as well as the provision of psychological assistance. The above factors will serve to assist the released person in social and material adaptation in society, which in turn will help prevent the commission of new criminal offenses.

The Council of Europe’s Responses to the Decay of the Rule of Law and Human Rights Protections: A Comparative Appraisal

Abstract This article introduces the Special Issue on ‘The Responses of the Council of Europe to the Decay of the Rule of Law and Human Rights Protections’. The Council of Europe (CoE), a unique international organisation with its commitment to protect and promote human rights, the rule of law, and democracy, has been severely tested by the spread and consolidation of trends posing systemic threats to its foundational goals. The authors of this Special Issue assess how the European Court of Human Rights, the Venice Commission, the Parliamentary Assembly, the Committee of Ministers, and the office of the Secretary General have addressed systemic threats to the foundational principles of the organisation in the last decade. The Special Issue finds that the respective legal-institutional features and capacities of the CoE organs as well as the constraining influence of the broader political context in Europe on them vary significantly, hampering the CoE’s ability to produce timely, consistent, and co-ordinated responses against systemic threats.

How Loud Do the Alarm Bells Toll? Execution of ‘Article 18 Judgments’ of the European Court of Human Rights

Abstract This article investigates whether Article 18 judgments of the European Court of Human Rights, indicating that the state authorities pursued ulterior and illegitimate motives when violating the Convention, receive the seriousness and the urgency that they call for at the execution phase. By way of an analysis of the responses of the Committee of Ministers and states on the receiving end of Article 18 judgments between 2004 and June 2021, this article finds that the collective responsiveness of the Committee of Ministers to Article 18 judgments has increased over time, especially with respect to individual measures required to implement Article 18 judgments. So far, the responsiveness of individual states to their Article 18 judgments does, however, vary significantly, ranging from taking concrete steps to implement the judgments to outright resistance and no response, posing a significant risk to the Convention system’s ability to respond to the decay of rule of law.

Supervision of the execution of The European Court of Human Rights’ case law

The Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms empowers the decision-making and executive body of the Council of Europe, id est the Committee of Ministers, to supervise the execution of the European Court of Human Rights’ case law. The mechanism thus established possesses a certain specificity, which is inherent to the European system of protection of fundamental rights. Therefore, both the political nature of the Committee of Ministers and the elements that form the process of monitoring the implementation of the content of the Strasbourg Court’s judgments and decisions are of interest.

An Analysis of the Execution of Judgments and Follow-up Mechanism Under the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights: Lessons from the European Human Rights System

The African Court is a critical forum under the African human rights system. Under the Protocol which establishes the African Court, member states have an obligation to comply with the court’s judgments and must guarantee their execution. However, states rarely comply with the judgments of this court. In contrast, judgments under the European human rights system are largely complied with. This article analyses and evaluates the monitoring and supervision of the execution of judgments of the African Court and the European Court. It analyses the supervision mechanisms employed by the African Union’s organs such as the Assembly of Heads of State and Government, the Executive Council and the African Court. These monitoring and enforcement mechanisms are compared to the European mechanisms employed by the Committee of Ministers, the European Court, and other bodies like the Parliamentary Assembly. The article contends that the monitoring and supervision mechanisms under the European human rights system are detailed, coherent, well established, specialised and effective as compared to the mechanisms in Africa. In that regard, the article proposes lessons that can be adopted to strengthen the African human rights system.

Psychiatric Commitment: Sixty Years Under the Scrutiny of the European Court of Human Rights.

Background and Aims: In the field of mental health, the fundamental right to liberty is a point of tension between the practice of psychiatric commitment on the one hand and the universal concept of human rights on the other. The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) is a very specific means of safeguarding human rights because it allows an individual to not only assert their rights but also compel a state to bring its legislation into conformity with the principles of the European Convention on Human Rights. The aim of this study was to gather the case-law of the ECtHR on psychiatric commitment over the last 60 years and to determine how this case-law has affected national legislation and therefore psychiatric practice.Methods: Jurisprudence data were collected from the HUDOC ECtHR database, and the direct effects of the ECtHR judgements on the legislations of the countries concerned were collected from the HUDOC EXEC database of the Council of Europe. The case-law of the Court included 118 judgements and 56 decisions and concerned 31 of the 45 countries that have ratified the Convention.Results: This study therefore showed a direct effect of the Court's case-law on the legislation on psychiatric commitment in the various countries that have ratified the Convention. It was also possible to detect an indirect effect of this case-law through the directives of international institutions such as the directives of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe concerning respect for people with mental disorders.Conclusions: The ECtHR case-law therefore has a major influence on the psychiatric practice in all Council of Europe countries.

The Implementation of the European Prison Rules Regarding Education in Belgium and Ireland

Abstract Reintegration of prisoners into community life is more than one of the desired outcomes of detention; it is a right. A long-standing tradition of international standards has been developed over time to regulate individualised reintegration plans, based on learning and working activities, relations with the outside world and assistance post-release. The European Prison Rules – adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe – are an outstanding result of this normative production. The purpose of this study is to evaluate and compare the implementation of international standards on prison education in Belgium and Ireland. The analysis of law, practices and domestic data points out the features of the prison education services in the two countries. Eventually, interviewing experts in the field allowed illustrating the initiatives that Belgium and Ireland are undertaking to respond to some current obstacles that the delivery of educational activities is facing. This research shows that despite the efforts of the two countries to comply with international standards on prison education, inadequate detention conditions – characterised by scarcity of resources and lack of specialised staff – hamper the reintegration of prisoners.

«Как бы то ни было, но судебная реформа скоро явится на свет». Неизвестный источник о подготовке в Российской империи Судебной реформы 1864 г.

The article and the published documents study the previously unknown documents on the judicial reform. Drawing on archival documents discovered in the Stasovs family archive (from the manuscript department of the Institute of Russian Literature) and in the secret archive of the Third Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancery (from the State Archive of the Russian Federation), including correspondence of D. V. Stassov with the chairman of the Yekaterinoslav criminal court chamber, A. S. Kuznetsov (1862–66), the publication reveals the unknown pages of the history of the judicial reform of 1864 in the Russian Empire. The sources highlight the activities of the commission for preparation of the reform under (initially) quite difficult conditions. The details of the judicial reform preparation are given against the background of constant struggles between conservative and liberal camps (with the gradual switchover of high-ranking officials from one camp to another, depending on the Emperor’s will), as well as between different groups and directions. Thus, the adoption of final decisions was delayed due to uncertain, evasive position of its members, as it happened during discussions of individual bills in the State Council. Attention is drawn to the reaction of officials of the Third Department, when perlustrating letters of the Councilor of State, Chief Secretary of the Governing Senate and Chairman of the Criminal Court Chamber of Yekaterinoslav containing quite immodest thoughts on the “behind-the-scenes preparation” of the Judicial reform. D. V. Stasov’s letters were actually weekly diary entries recording the preparation of the 1864 judicial reform, his tone picturesque, descriptions of ministers and high officials accurate and caustic. Such evidence from very authoritative sources provides a wealth of material on the attitude of the Imperial Court and the heads of state institutions (the Ministry of Justice, the State Council, the Senate, the Committee of Ministers, the Second Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancery) involved in decision-making concerning judicial projects, which has not been adequately covered in historical and legal studies. Publication of D. V. Stasov's letters (from the archival materials of the Stasov family fond) can significantly expand the source base on the history of preparation of the judicial reforms in the Russian Empire in 1860–64.

The European convention on human rights in the XXI century: in search of balance

The original system established by the European Convention on Human Rights is based on a delicate balance. Initially, this balance was achieved through the establishment of a mechanism sparing national susceptibilities in the face of the ambitious objectives displayed by the European project. The success of the system has led to the reform brought about by Protocol No. 11, strengthening its jurisdictional character. However, having coincided with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the enlargement of the Council of Europe, the system had to face new challenges: the number of potential applicants exceeded 800 million and the accession of new States with political and legal systems in transition and judicial systems under construction have caused litigation before the Court to explode. The process launched in Interlaken ten years ago has consolidated the capacities of the system, especially as the Court has been able to take advantage of it, on the one hand by putting in place innovative and effective measures and p rocedures and, on the other hand, by engaging in dialogue with national courts. Following the Interlaken process and the entry into force of Protocols No. 14, 15 and 16, the question arises as to whether the tools that these instruments have created, so essential for the effectiveness of the system today, will be sufficient to avoid tensions in the future. The groundwork for the future of the system will have to look at the synergies between the Court, the Committee of Ministers and the States Parties, aimed at giving the Convention system all the dimensions of engagement it needs: the jurisdictional dimension, above all, but also that of dialogue, consultation, cooperation and prevention. This will require a coordinated mobilization of all Council of Europe institutions.

ДЕРЖАВНИЙ ЗАХИСТ ТА ЗАБЕЗПЕЧЕННЯ БЕЗПЕКИ ОСІБ, ЯКІ БЕРУТЬ УЧАСТЬ У КРИМІНАЛЬНОМУ СУДОЧИНСТВІ, ЗА ЗАКОНОДАВСТВОМ УКРАЇНИ

The article reveals the features of state protection and security of persons participating in criminal proceedings, according to the legislation of Ukraine. It was found that the legal foundations of state protection and security of persons involved in criminal proceedings, in Ukraine are governed by the provisions of regulatory documents, in particular, such as: a) the Law of Ukraine «On ensuring the safety of persons participating in criminal proceedings»; b) the Law of Ukraine «On State Protection of Employees of the Court and Law Enforcement Agencies»; c) Resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of Ukraine «On the application of legislation, which provides for state protection of judges, employees of the court and law enforcement agencies and persons involved in legal proceedings»; d) Decision of the Council of Judges of Ukraine «On measures to ensure the safety of courts and judges, the protection of judges and persons who participate in the implementation of legal proceedings»; e) Recommendation No. R(97) 13 of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe to Member States Concerning Intimidation of Witnesses and the Rights of the Defence, adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 10 September 1997 at the 600th meeting of the Ministers' Deputies; f) Recommendation Rec (2005) 9 of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe to member states on the protection of witnesses and collaborators of justice, adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 20 April 2005 at the 924th meeting of the Ministers' Deputies. It has been established that the right to protection and security through the use of special measures has the persons who made a statement to the relevant law enforcement agency about a criminal offense, persons who otherwise participated in criminal proceedings, the victim (victims) or his representative (representatives) in criminal proceedings, an accused, a suspect, legal representatives and defenders, a civil plaintiff and a civil defendant, as well as their representatives in a case for compensation for damage caused as a result of a criminal offense, a representative of a legal entity in respect of which the proceedings are being carried out, employees of the probation body, witness, accuser, specialist, expert, attesting witness and translator, family members and close relatives of the above persons, in order to prevent influence on the actions and testimonies of participants in criminal proceedings. It has been determined that the authorities responsible for ensuring the safety of persons involved in legal proceedings, in particular in criminal proceedings, are the state bodies of Ukraine, which make appropriate decisions on the application of security measures, as well as directly implement security measures. It is noted that the prospects for further research in this direction are the study of the features of the witness protection program in Ukraine and its improvement, taking into account foreign experience, in particular the USA experience in this direction.

ЭВОЛЮЦИЯ МЕХАНИЗМА ИСПОЛНЕНИЯ АЛЬТЕРНАТИВНЫХ НАКАЗАНИЙ В МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫХ СТАНДАРТАХ XXI ВЕКА

The article analyzes the provisions of international standards, namely the Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers on the Council of Europe Probation Rules of 2010 and the European Rules on Community Sanctions and Measures of 2017. The author examines the problems of differentiation and individualization of sentences and analyzes the provisions of international standards on nondiscrimination in the implementation of sanctions. Many factors of non-discrimination that are new to international standards (physical disabilities, ethnic origin, sexual orientation) can cause disputes in terms of the applicability of alternative sentences. Discussing the offender’s “consent” and the prospects for its use, taking into account the right of such an offender to appeal against the decisions and actions of probation officers, the author focuses on the activities of the implementation bodies, including work with victims, prevention of relapse, restorative justice, which is preferred nowadays in the foreign studies, and work with the convict’s family to develop a classification of powers depending on the action and scope of assistance to the offender. Having analyzed the positive and negative legal consequences of the convict’s non-fulfillment or improper fulfillment of the duties or conditions imposed by the competent authority, the author argues that the regulation of a conflict is possible in three ways: by sorting it out urgently at one’s own discretion, through administrative proceedings and in court, with the choice depending on the type of violation. The key aspect of alternative sentences is the effectiveness of their implementation. The article provides a list of such criteria, of which the relapse rate is considered an important one, and discusses the main problems of the “community” sanctions and measures faced by the implementation bodies. It is stated that the development of international standards of alternative sanctions has elaborated the procedure for their implementation, both by complementing the previously existing provisions and by including new ones.

Coercive measure-sequestration for environmental crime

In general there are no many scientific papers on coercive measures determined under Criminal Procedural Code of Georgia. Though, based on aforesaid issue we may not state that aforesaid issues were not subject of controversy and does not include disputable opinions. In this scientific article the author represents legal aspects of sequestration - one of the measures of criminal procedural enforcement. Namely, based on active legislation the author in the article mainly considers essence, importance and application criteria of sequestration as a measure of criminal procedural enforcement. The article also considers achieved and possible results of sequestration as a coercive and enforcement measures and importance of aforesaid results. Article is composed of introduction, three parts and conclusion. Introduction of article refers special recommendation approved by Council of Europe Committee of Ministers in September 17, 1987 under that Parliament of Georgia approved Criminal Procedural Code of Georgia through the third hearing that entered into force from October 10, 2010. Contents of article generally refer legal regulation of sequestration, also emphasizing criteria of tax liability at the time of tax dispute and power criteria of tax authority during the specific tax dispute, also here are reviewed issues of enforcement measures related to disputable tax liability by applying coercive measures under the basis of decision of first instance court.

The knowledge cannot have borders: The new challenges of SIE

The recent deconstruction of traditional teaching and research activities has created a moment of great perplexity among professors of all the academic disciplines. In fact, the guidelines carried out by the ministerial technical committees, basically aimed at reducing the spread of COVID-19, have been mainly based on “social distancing” and “distance learning”.

Institute of discretion of the subject of authority in administrative judiciary

Problem setting. Article 19 of the Constitution of Ukraine provides: “Public authorities and local governments, their officials are obliged to act only on the basis, within the powers and in the manner prescribed by the Constitution and laws of Ukraine.” However, quite often this constitutional norm is violated in practice. This forces citizens to apply to the administrative court for protection of the violated right. As a result, the number of citizens’ appeals to the administrative court is constantly increasing. Due to the significant workload, the increase in the number of appeals, the terms of consideration of the administrative case provided in Art. 193 of the Code of Administrative Procedure of Ukraine are often violated by administrative courts and the case is not considered within a reasonable time. At the same time, one of the most problematic categories of disputes in administrative courts are those concerning the discretionary powers of the subject of power. In these disputes, the plaintiff usually asks to recognize the actions (inaction) of the subject of power illegal and oblige to take certain actions. The administrative court usually finds the actions illegal, but does not oblige the subject of power to take certain actions in favor of the plaintiff, referring to the discretionary powers of public authorities and local governments, their officials in making the decision. In the future, citizens are forced to spend a lot of time and money to restore the violated right. Courts in different situations act differently. In addition, the lack of a legislative definition of “discretionary powers” is also a problem. Analysis of recent research and publications. In the modern scientific literature, the works of Belkin L.M., Boychuk M.I., Wenger V.M., Vlasov A.O., Grin A.A., Zolotareva M.K., Magda S.O., Panov G.V., Staryk A.M., Tarasenko T.M., Fedchuk S.I., and others are devoted to the question of discretionary powers of the subject of power. Along with this problematic issue, the institution of discretion of the subject of power, analysis of the case law of the Supreme Court is not given enough attention. The aim of the article is to investigate issues related to discretionary powers, determine the possible limits of court interference in the administrative discretion of the subject of power, based on the case law of the Supreme Court. Results and discussion. In modern conditions, a significant number of cases in administrative courts are related to the discretionary powers of the subject of power. These are mostly social disputes. Given the uncertainty of such a concept as “discretionary powers”, the courts refer in their decisions to the Recommendation NR(80)2 of the Committee of Ministers of the European Council, adopted by the Committee 10 on 11th of March 1980 at its 316th meeting, according to which discretionary powers should be understood as the administrative body, in making decisions, may exercise with a certain discretion. The above means, that such a body may choose from several legally admissible decisions the one, that is considered to be the best in the given circumstances. At the moment, there is a certain case law of the Supreme Court regarding the discretionary powers of the subject of power. Conclusions. The Supreme Court’s case law seeks to fill the gaps in the lack of proper legislative regulation of the issue of discretion and the relationship between the discretion of the court and the discretion of the subject of authority. However, this case law may not always be completely homogeneous. Given the significant number of cases related to discretionary powers and the lack of proper legislative regulation of this issue, it is time for the Verkhovna Rada to adopt a law to comprehensively regulate this issue, defining the concept of “discretionary powers”. This may provide guidance to the authorities and courts on how to act in specific situations and reduce the number of cases in the courts and will help to properly protect the rights and legitimate interests of individuals and legal entities.

The European Court of Human Rights as Part of Criminal Procedural Legislation of Ukraine

The author has studied the issue of the origin and formation of the European Court of Human Rights after the Second World War, steps in the establishment and development of this Court, as well as the actions of the Member States to consolidate the development of the European Court of Human Rights at specialized conferences with the support of the Committee of Ministers. The list of regulatory and legislative acts adopted by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine for the establishment of the rule of law in regard to the understanding of human rights in the activities of Ukrainian courts has been researched. Since the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms has become part of national legislation after its ratification by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, more detailed study should be conducted regarding the urgent task of fully understanding the content of this international treaty and the main mechanisms for implementing its norms. The author has analyzed the implementation of the case law of the European Court of Human Rights on the example of its specific decisions into criminal procedural legislation of Ukraine by applying the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights by the Grand Chamber of the Supreme Court in its activities and problematic aspects of their practical implementation. Particular attention has been paid to the study of problematic aspects of the use of these decisions in practice by highlighting the rulings of the Grand Chamber of the Supreme Court issued in 2019. The author has analyzed the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights in regard to the conducted secret (search) actions by law enforcement agencies with further disclosure ob obtained evidence to the defense party; it has been also pointed out that the right to disclose evidence contained in criminal proceedings is not absolute to the defense and may be limited only in cases when there are the interests of national security, information protection or witness protection concerning the methods and forms of law enforcement agencies’ activity. The author has made propositions to resolve certain situations related to the implementation of the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights in Ukraine.

Mammadov v. Azerbaijan (Eur. Ct. H.R.)

The judgment of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR, or the Court) in Mammadov v. Azerbaijan was the first “infringement procedure” judgment pursuant to Article 46(4) of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR, or the Convention). This procedure was introduced to the Convention by Protocol 14, which entered into force in 2010. The idea behind it was that the Committee of Ministers—the body of the Council of Europe that supervises the execution of judgments of the ECtHR—could return the case to the Court to confirm that the responded state had failed to enforce it. Although there are quite a few instances of non-execution, this procedure has not been in use because it is difficult to initiate and its results are uncertain. The Mammadov judgment was a test of the effectiveness of infringement procedures, but it failed to provide a definitive answer as to whether such procedures were effective in terms of state implementation of ECtHR judgments. The applicant in this case was a political prisoner and the Committee of Ministers fruitlessly tried for a number of years to force Azerbaijan to release him. Soon after the Article 46(4) request reached the Court, the Azerbaijani authorities conditionally released the applicant. That said, all other negative consequences of his criminal conviction, such as an inability to run for election, have yet to be removed, so the judgment has not been implemented in full.

The European System of Human Rights Protection: No Rolls-Royce, but a Solid Engine Fit for the Future? In Conversation with Council of Europe Insiders

Abstract The European Convention system has a unique structure among regional human rights regimes. Not only does it have a full-time Court and a Parliamentary Assembly, it is also the only system to have a political body, the Committee of Ministers, tasked with monitoring the implementation of judgments issued by the Court. While the day-to-day work is carried out by the Department for the Execution of Judgments (‘Execution Department’), the ministers’ deputies meet quarterly to examine the implementation (or ‘execution’) of (selected) judgments. How effective has this distinctive institutional arrangement been, and what challenges does it face in an era of increasing hostility to supranational human rights bodies? Anne-Katrin Speck, Research Associate with the Human Rights Law Implementation Project, discussed these questions with Andrew Drzemczewski, former Head of the Legal Affairs and Human Rights Department of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe; Christos Giakoumopoulos, Director General of Human Rights and Rule of Law of the Council of Europe; and Michael O’Boyle, former Deputy Registrar of the European Court of Human Rights.

A Parliamentary Perspective on the Implementation of the Judgments of the European Court of Human Rights

Abstract As a member of the Assemblée nationale, the lower house of the French Parliament, from 2012 to 2017, the author was part of the French delegation to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE), where he was entrusted with preparing, as a rapporteur for the Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights, a report on the implementation of the judgments of the European Court of Human Rights. This practice note underscores that it is the responsibility of PACE as an institution, and of its members individually, to follow closely the issue of the implementation of European Court judgments, even if the primary responsibility for supervising implementation, or ‘execution’, lies with the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe. PACE can provide useful solutions where the implementation of judgments pertaining to long-standing or systemic problems is stalled or protracted, notably through field missions carried out by members and in particular by its rapporteur, which can complement the efforts deployed by the Committee of Ministers.

The Credit Problem of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises, the State Credit Policy of the Federal Ministry of the Economy and Financing by Credit Institutions, 1955 to 1963

This paper examines the demand of German Mittelstand businesses, or small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) - including the Handwerk (craft sector) and retail trades - for medium- and long-term capital in the mid-1950s, and how this demand was met by mobilizing capital from banking institutions, especially from savings banks and credit cooperatives, under the regulatory framework and policy coordination of the ministerial committee (Arbeitsausschus). The Bundeswirtschaftsministerium established this committee with delegates from interested groups among the Mittelstand and financial institutions in West Germany. Although impressive economic growth came in the 1950s, with high investments in many industries with public-sector assistance, Mittelstand firms suffered from a lack of capital, which changed their structure of performance, markets and ability to finance expansion of their business. The ministerial committee drafted guidelines and coordinated the interests of each Mittelstand group and banking institution to solve the problems in a competitive market economy. As individual incomes were restored and the capital market stabilized by the late 1950s, the financial support structure of the Mittelstand economy was built on regional savings banks, credit cooperatives, and credit-guarantee associations, providing them access to external capital in the early 1960s.

Implementing nationwide measles supplemental immunization activities in Ethiopia in the context of COVID-19: process and lessons learnt.

The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted immunization activities in many countries, causing declines in the delivery of routine doses of antigens, and the postponement of scheduled supplemental immunization activities (SIAs). Following the declaration of the pandemic, Ethiopia postponed nationwide follow-up measles preventive vaccination campaign which was scheduled for April 2020. The disruptions to routine services and the postponement of the SIAs increased the risk for measles outbreaks. The national authorities, in consultation with the secretariat of the National COVID-19 Pandemic Prevention and Control Ministerial Coordination Committee, subnational level authorities, technical partner agencies and stakeholders, reviewed the risks for measles outbreaks and decided to implement the nationwide measles SIAs, with strict implementation of COVID prevention measures. The revised micro-plans accommodated the additional human resource and logistics needs for COVID prevention, for which partner resources were mobilized to fill the gaps. The key SIAs preparatory and implementation activities including training, logistics, social mobilization, service delivery and supervision were modified to take into consideration the COVID context. Infection prevention and control supplies were procured and distributed as a package with the bundled vaccines and other supplies. The SIAs were completed in July 2020 and reached 102.8% administrative coverage nationwide, with 78% of the 1123 woredas attaining the target of 95% coverage. The strong commitment of the leadership, the coordination role of the national and regional COVID prevention and control taskforces, the engagement of community leaders, the use of multi-channel communication, the timely availability of additional resources and modification of the service delivery approaches contributed to the success of the SIAs.