Commitment To Science Research Articles

Methodological conservativism in Kant and Strawson

ABSTRACTI argue that Kant’s transcendental idealism and Strawson’s descriptive metaphysics are both examples of what I call methodological conservativism. Methodological conservativism involves the claim that a subset of common first-order beliefs is immune to revision. I argue that there are striking differences between their respective commitments to this position, however. For Kant, his conservativism is based upon a commitment to the reliability of particular results of the sciences of his day. For Strawson, in contrast, his conservativism is based upon his attempted liberation of arguments for the necessity of a certain conceptual scheme from any particular scientific commitments. In fact, for Strawson, no change in scientific commitments could displace the conceptual scheme employed to navigate the manifest world of ordinary perceptual experience. Each approach brings with it challenges with regard to how to accommodate potential scientific theory change.

Desafíos de las Ciencias Sociales en América Latina. La experiencia en México

<p class="p1">Las Ciencias Sociales enfrentan hoy desafíos múltiples que abarcan desde la renovación de los enfoques teóricos, los cruces disciplinarios y el posicionamiento institucional, hasta la rearticulación del compromiso científico para responder a las exigencias de una sociedad pluralista. El presente trabajo pretende explorar, desde la experiencia en México, los principales desafíos del desarrollo institucional de las Ciencias Sociales en el ámbito de América Latina.</p>

Rethinking the scientist-practitioner model: On the necessary complementarity of the natural and human science dimensions

Although the dominant scientist–practitioner model has considerable professional support, it remains the case that there is a fundamental mismatch between its conceptualisation of the practitioner as a laboratory scientist in a clinical setting and the actual requirements for good counselling practice. In particular, there is mismatch between the kind of knowledge generated in the laboratory setting and the epistemic requirements of the therapeutic situation; and between the (detached, impersonal) kind of decision-making engaged in by the laboratory scientist and the (interpersonal, interactive) kind engaged in by the practitioner. Moreover, being structural in character, these limitations cannot be rectified by piecemeal modifications of the standard model, such as those envisaged on the ‘local clinical scientist model’. Nor can the recent push towards ‘evidence-based practice’ suffice as a corrective because the core problem simply replicates itself on that level. Instead, since they derive from an unduly restrictive conception of what constitutes scientific inquiry, they require endorsement of the equal partnership of the human science template as a corrective. Moreover, far from compromising its scientific commitments, this actively facilitates rethinking the integration of science and practice in the service of the effective practice of care.

The missing self in scientific psychiatry

Various traditions in mental health care, such as phenomenological, and existential and cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy, implicitly or explicitly acknowledge that a disruption of the self, or the person, or the agent (often using these three concepts synonymously) is among the common denominators of different mental disorders. They often emphasize the importance of understanding patients as reasonsresponsive, in their full mental health relevant complexity, if their mental disorder is to be treated successfully. The centrality of the concept of the self is not mirrored in the mainstream scientific approaches in psychiatry however; the self has rarely been considered as the object of scientific research, the empirical investigation of which might yield successful explanations of and interventions in mental disorders. Thus, even though self-related phenomena are clinically relevant in so far as they give important information about a mental disorder to the clinician and help the development of effective interventions, they are not considered among the scientifically relevant properties of mental disorders. Leaving the self-related phenomena out of the scientific research on mental disorders can be attributed to the presupposition that the self is not empirically tractable and its use will hinder psychiatry’s goal to be scientific. In this paper, taking issue with this, I argue the self is empirically tractable, and its use as a target of research will not hinder psychiatry’s scientific commitments.

The Ascent of Man and the Politics of Humanity's Evolutionary Future

Throughout the twentieth century, contemporary understandings of evolutionary theory were tightly linked to visions of the future freighted with moral consequence. This essay traces the origins and legacy of this scientific commitment to a universal family of man in postwar evolutionary theory, and elaborates how evolutionary scientists sought to reframe the politics of human evolution by claiming that the principles governing the physical past of humanity differed fundamentally from those that would matter in the coming decades, centuries, or even millennia. Education and public engagement embodied the moral importance of actively participating in the creation of that better, future world.

Malaria incidence in Myanmar 2005-2014: steady but fragile progress towards elimination.

BackgroundThere has been an impressive recent reduction in the global incidence of malaria, but the development of artemisinin resistance in the Greater Mekong Region threatens this progress. Increasing artemisinin resistance is particularly important in Myanmar, as it is the country in the Greater Mekong Region with the greatest malaria burden. If malaria is to be eliminated in the region, it is essential to define the spatial and temporal epidemiology of the disease in Myanmar to inform control strategies optimally.ResultsBetween the years 2005 and 2014 there was an 81.1 % decline in the reported annual incidence of malaria in Myanmar (1341.8 cases per 100,000 population to 253.3 cases per 100,000 population). In the same period, there was a 93.5 % decline in reported annual mortality from malaria (3.79 deaths per 100,000 population to 0.25 deaths per 100,000 population) and a 87.2 % decline in the proportion of hospitalizations due to malaria (7.8 to 1.0 %). Chin State had the highest reported malaria incidence and mortality at the end of the study period, although socio-economic and geographical factors appear a more likely explanation for this finding than artemisinin resistance. The reduced malaria burden coincided with significant upscaling of disease control measures by the national government with support from international partners. These programmes included the training and deployment of over 40,000 community health care workers, the coverage of over 60 % of the at-risk population with insecticide-treated bed nets and significant efforts to improve access to artemesinin-based combination treatment. Beyond these malaria-specific programmes, increased general investment in the health sector, changing population demographics and deforestation are also likely to have contributed to the decline in malaria incidence seen over this time.ConclusionsThere has been a dramatic fall in the burden of malaria in Myanmar since 2005. However, with the rise of artemisinin resistance, continued political, financial and scientific commitment is required if the ambitious goal of malaria elimination in the country is to be realized.

Afinal, Desenvolvimento Regional serve para quê? Reflexões a partir da sociologia da libertação de Fals Borda e da sociologia da exploração de Casanova

A história, tanto do desenvolvimento quanto da teoria social na América Latina, está imersa no paradigma eurocêntrico, no encobrimento do Outro (maiorias exploradas no subcontinente), na exploração da natureza e na predominância de discursos “desde fora”. A teoria do desenvolvimento regional, considerada de médio alcance, é derivada da teoria do desenvolvimento e traz, em sua bagagem, enfoques importados que prometem milagres ao levar o progresso às regiões subdesenvolvidas da periferia. A teoria social, no geral, e a sociologia-centro, em particular, são parte desse paradigma e desse discurso. Nesse sentido, trazemos neste artigo a sociologia-periferia, de Fals Borda e de Casanova, em diálogo com a questão regional, como possibilidade de contra-discurso. Essa sociologia abriga a crítica eurocêntrica da teoria social e do desenvolvimento que teve lugar na América Latina, e discute o compromisso da ciência no pensar com a região e no agir para transformar/libertar a região.

Japanese political science at a crossroads? normative and empirical preconditions for the integration of women and diversity into political science

Japan combines demographic challenges of decreasing childbirths and an ageing population, yet political unwillingness to use immigration to ease labour market and caregiving shortages. Paying attention to gender, diversity, and inclusion would seem to be a ‘rational’ political choice. Although Prime Minister Abe (Abe II) understands the need to appear to be responding to Japanese women qua equal citizens, women remain more an ‘object’ of LDP policy than a substantive beneficiary. To improve his image, Abe has incorporated ‘Womenomics’ into his strategy of economic revitalisation; the result has been a rather incoherent blend of ‘equal participation’ and ‘women’s utilisation’. In 2016, the dearth of diversity and anti-feminist sentiment within Japanese politics continues to be mirrored in both passive and active ways within the discursive and institutional political climate, including within academia. It is largely premature to assume a shared normative or scientific commitment to inclusion and diversity in Japan. Japanese Political Science (JPS) is no exception, and this has obvious implications for what constitutes a ‘serious’ political issue worthy of study, what gets funded, who gets hired, and the extent to which critical debates within feminist political science (FSP) on gender, race, and diversity are taken seriously. In this article, I offer a preliminary evaluation of JPS in light of three indicators: the under-representation of women in Japanese academia generally and political science specifically; the access of FPS to large-scale government funding grants (2003–2013) and its impact on the discipline; and recent efforts by feminist political scientists in Tokyo to create a ‘home’ for debates on gender, diversity, and political representation. I conclude with a hopeful expectation that increasing numbers of political scientists in Japan will begin to genuinely problematise the dearth of diversity in Japanese politics and to approach this fundamental puzzle of Japanese democratisation with the intellectual curiosity that it deserves.

L’engagement de Freud dans la neurologie

L’enseignement de Meynert en psychiatrie a su retenir, plus que tout autre, l’intérêt de Sigmund Freud étudiant. Apprenti médecin, ce dernier se tourne vers la neurologie pour en faire bientôt son activité principale et la voie de son ambition. Les circonstances de ce premier tournant font resurgir la figure singulière de son aîné dans la carrière, Nathan Weiss, dont le suicide précipite une décision et un engagement scientifique déterminant pour la suite de son parcours intellectuel.

Philippe Grandjean is the 2015 BCPT Nordic Prize Awardee.

Philippe Grandjean is the 2015 BCPT Nordic Prize Awardee.

A “child-friendly” hospital: a difficult definition

It would be quite interesting and instructive to sketch the history of how children's hospitals came to be established. Our first thought goes to the “Ospedale degli Innocenti” in Florence and the establishment of orphanages, which for many years were the only available facilities, but which took in only orphans and children abandoned by their parents. Until paediatrics became an independent branch, also in terms of teaching at the university level with the creation of the first chair in Rome, in the early 1900s, held by Professor Concetti, the beds for hospitalized children were in the Internal Medicine and the General Surgery Wards. Following the example of the first paediatric clinics established in the late 1800s in France, in Paris, the first children's hospitals were founded also in Italy, in Rome, Palermo, Bologna, Naples, Genoa and gradually in other cities, thanks to bequests from wealthy members of the aristocracy and public and private benefactors. The technological progress and the development of welfare assistance in the 1960/70s, the scientific commitment of paediatricians and the affirmation of their role in the care of children in the development stage led to the gradual spread of paediatric and neonatology wards in our country. However, significant differences continue to exist between regions even today and, furthermore, the economic crisis that has been affecting the country for years now is leading to a downgrading of paediatric and neonatology wards, where head physician positions are not filled again upon vacancy and which are merged with adult care wards. It would be preferable to cut and downsize the positions of the administrative staff rather than those of the doctors and nursing staff. Another critical issue remains in terms of the improper hospitalization of children and adolescents in general medicine or specialized (otolaryngology, ophthalmology, dermatology, orthopaedics, etc.) wards for adults. A “child-friendly” hospital must of course offer surroundings suited to the age of the young patients, from birth to adolescence, such as areas for mothers who are nursing or who have to assist their hospitalized child, a games room, a schoolroom, but above all the facility must allow and ensure the “care” of these young patients, involving their parents and allowing them to remain close to their children. Moreover, doctors must be freed from the continuous and unrelenting administrative procedures thrust upon them (meetings on budgets, on the various audits, etc.) and given more time to devote to one of the most sensitive aspects of our work: communication with patients and their families. Ultimately, we are simply re-inventing the wheel; already the ancient Romans reaffirmed the principle that all those involved in childcare should observe: “Maxima debetur puero reverentia!”

Factors affecting the uptake of new medicines: a systematic literature review.

BackgroundThe successful diffusion of new drugs is crucial for both pharmaceutical companies and patients—and of wider stakeholder concern, including for the funding of healthcare provision. Micro-level characteristics (the socio-demographic and professional characteristics of medical professionals), meso-level characteristics (the prescribing characteristics of doctors, the marketing efforts of pharmaceutical companies, interpersonal communication among doctors, drug attributes, and the characteristics of patients), and macro-level characteristics (government policies) all influence the diffusion of new drugs. This systematic literature review examines the micro- and meso-level characteristics of early prescribers of newly introduced drugs. Understanding the characteristics of early adopters may help to speed up the diffusion process, promote cost-efficient prescribing habits, forecast utilisation, and develop targeted intervention strategies.MethodsThe PubMed and Scopus electronic databases were chosen for their extensive coverage of the pertinent literature and used to identify 205 potentially relevant studies by means of a four-layered search string. The 35 studies deemed eligible were then synthetized carefully and critically, to extract variables relevant to this review.ResultsEarly adoption of new drugs is not a personal trait, independent of drug type, but early adopters share both micro- and meso-level characteristics. At prescriber level, doctors’ interest in particular therapeutic areas, participation in clinical trials, and volume of prescribing—either in total or within the therapeutic class of the new drug—increase the likelihood of early adoption. The marketing efforts of pharmaceutical companies and doctors’ professional and social interactions leading to prescribing contagion are very powerful predictors of new drug uptake. At patient level, doctors with younger patients, patients with higher socioeconomic statuses and/or patients with poorer health statuses are more inclined to prescribe new drugs early. In contrast, the socio-demographic characteristics of prescribers and many practice-related factors play little role in the adoption process.ConclusionsThe most powerful predictors of new drug uptake include the doctors’ strong scientific commitment, high prescribing volume in total or in within the therapeutic class of the new drug, high exposure to marketing, and intense communication with colleagues.

Challenges in infant and young child nutrition in the context of HIV

There is consensus on the benefits for all infants of exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months and introduction of appropriate complementary foods at 6 months, followed by continued breastfeeding. However, guidelines on infant and young child feeding (IYCF) for HIV-positive mothers have changed continually since 2000. This article explores issues and evidence related to IYCF for the prevention and care of paediatric HIV in resource-limited settings in light of new HIV treatment guidelines, implementation challenges and knowledge gaps.In 2010 the impact of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) on reducing the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV moved WHO to urge countries to endorse either avoidance of all breastfeeding or exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months while taking ARVs, depending on which strategy could give their infants the greatest chance of HIV-free survival. Implementation of the 2010 recommendations is challenged by lack of healthcare provider training, weak clinic-community linkages to support mother/infant pairs and lack of national monitoring and reporting on infant feeding indicators.More evidence is needed to inform prevention and treatment of malnutrition among HIV-exposed and HIV-infected children. Knowledge gaps include the effects of prolonged ARV exposure, the cause of HIV-associated growth faltering, the effects of early infant testing on continuation of breastfeeding and specific nutrition interventions needed for HIV-infected children.Significant progress has been made toward keeping mothers alive and reducing paediatric HIV infection, but sustained political, financial and scientific commitment are required to ensure meaningful interventions to eliminate postnatal transmission and meet the nutritional needs of HIV-exposed and HIV-infected children.

Only collective action will end undernutrition

The first Lancet Series on maternal and child undernutrition published in 2008 helped to start the race to eradicate poor nutrition. In the past 5 years the governments of 35 countries have committed to do more to tackle undernutrition and have joined the Scaling Up Nutrition movement. On the last day of the 2012 Olympics the governments of the UK and Brazil co-hosted an event in London UK to generate political momentum in the fight against undernutrition. On June 8 2013 the Nutrition for Growth high level event in London will help to secure a global response that will include financial business scientific and political commitments matched to the scale of the challenge. Progress will be reviewed annually and again at the Olympics in Rio de Janeiro Brazil in 2016. We cannot aff ord to miss this opportunity to act together to beat undernutrition. (Excerpt)

Not Just a “Fleck” on the Epistemic Landscape: A Reappraisal of Ludwik Fleck’s Views of the Nature of Scientific Progress and Change in Relation to Contemporary Educational and Social Issues

In contrast to Thomas Kuhn, the work of Ludwik Fleck, a Polish-born physician, microbiologist, and epistemologist, is conspicuously absent from the science education literature. His originally obscure monograph first published in German in 1935, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, anticipates a number of views explicated by contemporary philosophers of science, cognitive psychologists, and learning theorists, and Fleck’s main thesis is, is many respects, strikingly similar to the oft-cited thesis developed later by Kuhn in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Fleck’s work is perhaps the best example of the social influence on scientific commitment and thinking and is one of the first works to suggest different scales or varieties of change in science. At the same time as Fleck’s work gains recognition, momentum, and force in philosophical circles, some educators are calling for a critical appraisal of Kuhn’s impact on science education. This climate provides an ideal opportunity to assess (or perhaps in some cases reassess) the value of Fleck’s work in a science education context. The primary aim of this article, therefore, is to introduce educators in general, and science educators in particular, to the main ideas developed by Fleck in his Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact. Throughout this article, Fleck’s ideas are compared and contrasted to those of Thomas Kuhn—arguably one of the most popular referents in nature of science studies over the past decade. As will be discussed, many of the ideas developed by Fleck anticipate central issues and perspectives in philosophy, epistemology, sociology, education, and cognitive psychology.

The shoulder and elbow Supplement of “Musculoskeletal Surgery”

In 2005 the managing board of the Italian Society of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery under the presidency of professor Rovesta took the decision to commit in the production of a monographic issue dealing with elbow and shoulder pathologies inside the ‘‘Chirurgia degli Organi di Movimento’’ (Figure 1). This effort aimed at creating both an instrument for diffusion of consolidated techniques and of innovative proposals in shoulder and elbow surgery, and a growing incitement at scientific commitment for the members of the Society. After a 2-year interval during which the journal saw the transformation of its layout and the change of its heading (Figure 2), the hope to create a monographic issue all

EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE, MARITAL HARMONY AND FLORENCE MARRYAT'S AN ANGEL OF PITY (1898)

The focus of this essay is Florence Marryat's sensational exploration of the late nineteenth-century vivisection debate. Marryat's contribution to the formation of popular scientific awareness through her exploration of scientific debate in her fiction has been hitherto unaddressed. One of the reasons for this might be that she dismissed herself as a writer of “ephemeral fiction”. However, Marryat has recently undergone a renaissance of academic interest, and this essay will study An Angel of Pity (1898) in conjunction with medical writing and other literary production of the period in an attempt to assess her dissemination of key arguments from the vivisection debate to her vast readership. An Angel of Pity deals graphically with the realities of vivisection. Ostensibly a love story, this novel details a relationship that is very nearly destroyed because of a scientific commitment to the practice of vivisection. By discussing the use of scientific debate as a narratorial device in nineteenth-century popular fiction, this essay hopes to contribute to an understanding of this very contentious topic and its impact on popular culture.

Relational Well‐being: An Indigenous Perspective and Measure

Extant measures of well‐being, guided by western European values and beliefs, reveal a scientific commitment to develop and test indices to monitor the social, psychological, familial, and economic status of populations. The limitations of these measures to ethnic populations are addressed in this study. Relational Well‐being (RWB II), an indigenous, culture‐based 14‐item measure rooted in beliefs and values emphasizing family, ancestors, culture, and harmony with nature, was developed and tested with a sample (N = 810) of indigenous Hawaiians in Hawaii. Exploratory factor analysis (n = 408), confirmatory factor analysis (n = 402), test of invariance, and tests of reliability and validity confirmed the psychometric quality of RWB II. The applicability of the composite index of Relational Well‐being II as well as its six underlying factors (Resilience, Community Involvement, Financial Stability, Cultural Practice, Family Commitment, and Health Care) to family theory of resilience, research, and education are discussed.

Technology Focus: CO2 Applications (July 2012)

Technology Focus Last year in this focus on CO2 applications, I (as others have) connected enhanced oil recovery (EOR) as an enabling business foundation and a possible way forward to accomplish carbon capture and storage (CCS) as a business investment. This year, in an address to the CCS conference in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US Department of Energy (DOE) Assistant Secretary of Fossil Energy Charles McConnell encouraged the CCS industry to help operators establish a salient business case between CO2 EOR and usage and sequestration. Creating a technical lead in CO2 EOR and other usage technologies establishes an opportunity to commercialize the technologies that could be in high demand in the years to come, particularly in coal-reliant developing countries such as China and India. The technologies needed to accomplish carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) require expertise in science and engineering that, in some cases, are not completely matured or, at least, require a different focus and commitment in science and business to affect CCUS. An acceptable return on investment will depend on economic CO2 capture and largely on regulatory stability. Administratively, the US Environmental Protection Agency proposed a carbon pollutions standard for new power plants, which will have to meet 1,000 lbm of CO2 per electrical megawatt-hour produced. Older coal plants average approximately 1,768 lbm of CO2 per megawatt-hour but are exempt from the standard, as are plants permitted to begin construction within a year. A typical natural-gas electricity-generation plant emits 800 to 860 lbm of CO2 per megawatt-hour. Recommended additional reading at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org. IPTC 15029 An Integrated Reservoir-Simulation/Geomechanical Study on Feasability of CO2 Storage in M4 Carbonate Reservoir, Malaysia by Rahim Masoudi, Petronas, et al. CMTC 151027 NETL CO2-Injection and -Storage Cost Model by T.C. Grant, US Department of Energy, et al. SPE 154539 Evaluation of the CO2-Storage Capacity of the Captain Sandstone Formation by Min Jin, Heriot-Watt University, et al. SPE 145440 Monitoring on CO2 EOR and Storage in a CCS Demonstration Project of Jilin Oil Field China by Shaoran Ren, China University of Petroleum, et al. CMTC 151716 The Longannet to Goldeneye Project: Challenges in Developing an End-to-End CCS Scheme by P.J. Garnham, Shell, et al.

India Lacks Scientific Leadership

P. Bagla's interview of C. N. R. Rao (“Top Indian chemist helps make the case for science windfall,” Newsmakers interview, 13 January, p. [157][1]) lacks some important context. In my experience, the Scientific Advisory Committee to the Prime Minister (SAC-PM) of India, which Rao chairs, has shown neither social responsibility nor genuine commitment to science. For example, in 2001, then-Education Minister Murali Manohar Joshi proposed that astrology be included along with subjects such as chemistry and economics among the first degree courses in India's universities. A colleague and I filed a petition with the Supreme Court of India against the proposal. Our petition was admitted and heard but eventually dismissed. The support of our science academies and credible scientists such as Rao could have helped our case by countering the judges' unscientific beliefs about astrology. Rao says, “We have been short of high-level talent for some time.” He lays the blame for this on our bureaucracy. I believe that the true blame lies with India's scientific leaders. The scientific leadership in the country, with notable exceptions, rewards sycophancy and punishes independence, integrity, courage, effective communication, scientific competence, and credibility. [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.335.6065.157