Commission For The Conservation Of Antarctic Marine Living Resources Research Articles

Analysis of Policy Inter-linkage in International Whaling Regulation and Implication for Japanese Whaling Policy

This article analyses inter-linkage among regimes related to regulation of whaling and deliberates on the implications for Japanese whaling policy in the future. International regulation of whaling consists of not only the International Whaling Commission (IWC), but also the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CITES), and relevant regional regulatory regimes. This article shows that linkage between UNCLOS and IWC generated synergistic effect and further promoted another linkage between UNCLOS and North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission (NAMMCO). Based on the result of the analysis, the implications for whaling diplomacy of the government of Japan were derived. Since the adoption of a moratorium on commercial whaling in 1982, regulation of whaling under IWC emphasized protection of whale stocks, rather than utilization of the resource. Japan argued that such situation of IWC goes against the objective of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. On that ground, Japanese delegation states that withdrawal from the IWC is an option. However, even if Japan withdraws from the IWC, it will not mean that Japan can resume commercial whaling at her own discretion. In the case of withdrawal from IWC, how to fulfill the requirement of UNCLOS—to work through appropriate international organizations for conservation, management and study of cetaceans—will be a problem. Not only resumption of commercial whaling, but also the continuation of scientific whaling in Antarctic will raise the same problem. An option for appropriate international organization would be Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), although in-depth consideration of policy inter-linkage and compatibility between scientific activities under CCAMLR and scientific whaling is necessary.JEL classification: Q22, Q28, R59

Southern Ocean pelagic ecosystems: the era of conservation

The decline of the great whales by the early 1960s allied to the emergence of the “new order” of ocean governance under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which limited the availability of some of the most productive fishing grounds by placing them under Coastal state jurisdiction, meant that many traditional fishing nations were looking to alternative targets. Antarctic krill, which in the era of Discovery Investigations had been studied as the whale food, now became a target for commercial fishing along with some fin fish species. Major concerns were expressed at the potential difficulties that might arise, not just for krill but also dependent species, should over-fishing on krill occur. This led to the Biological Investigations of Marine Antarctic Systems and Stocks (BIOMASS) and subsequently to the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). Implementing an ecosystem approach by CCAMLR, the first to be included in any fisheries convention, has provided challenges. More recently the questions of surveillance and monitoring of the fleets in the lucrative toothfish fishery has been the major concern. Developments in fishing, monitoring and the provision of scientific advice for management are discussed.

New target-strength model indicates more krill in the Southern Ocean

Abstract Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, comprises the foundation of the foodweb in the Southern Ocean and is the target of a large fishery. Recently, the total abundance of krill in the Scotia Sea was estimated from an international echosounder and net survey (CCAMLR 2000) to be 44.3 million metric tonnes (Mt; CV 11.4%) (Hewitt et al., 2002). The new biomass estimate prompted the Antarctic Treaty's Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to revise the precautionary catch level for krill in the area from 1.5 to 4 Mt (SC-CAMLR, 2000). These survey results are based on the total echo energy attributed to krill, scaled by the Greene et al. (1991) model of krill acoustical reflectivity or target strength (TS). Presented here is a re-analysis of the CCAMLR 2000 data incorporating recent improvements in the characterization of krill TS. The results indicate that the estimated krill biomass in the Scotia Sea may be as high as 192.4 Mt (CV = 11.7%), or as low as 109.4 Mt (CV = 10.4%), depending solely on the expected distribution of krill orientations. The new Stochastic, Distorted-Wave, Born-Approximation (SDWBA) TS model solved with an empirically estimated distribution of in situ orientations leads to a krill-biomass estimate that is nearly 2.5 times the previous estimate. In consequence, revisions may be warranted of the standard krill TS model, the CCAMLR 2000 biomass estimate, and the associated precautionary catch level for krill in the Scotia Sea.

Management of Southern Ocean fisheries: global forces and future sustainability

The marine resources of the Antarctic region are of global significance. In managing Southern Ocean marine resources, especially fisheries, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) has adopted principles that aim: to balance harvesting and conservation; to protect the needs of dependent species, and to avoid changes that are irreversible in 20–30 years. CCAMLR has pioneered ecosystem approaches to fishery and environmental management, through the incorporation of precaution and uncertainty into its management procedures and by establishing an ecosystem monitoring programme using indicator species and processes. This pioneering application of precautionary and ecosystem approaches in the management of harvesting has met with some success, notably in applying conservative yield models for toothfish and krill stocks and in establishing strict rules for undertaking new and exploratory fisheries. However, toothfish management has been recently compromised by Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing which is driven by forces outside the Southern Ocean. Southern Ocean harvestable resources are also subject to other global forces such as environmental changes, and their management systems remain very vulnerable to rapid shifts in worldwide fishery economics, and to inadequate management in adjacent areas, particularly high seas. CCAMLR needs quickly to develop the basis of more flexible and effective management to cater for rapid shifts in capacity and demand. The complementary task, however, is to raise the management standard of other Regional Fisheries Management Organisations (RFMOs) to those of CCAMLR if global high seas marine resources are to be sustainable for the rest of this century.

Factors influencing the distribution, biomass, and productivity of phytoplankton in the Scotia Sea and adjoining waters

During January and February 2000 four research vessels,f rom Russia,t he UK, Japan, and the United States, conducted an oceanographic survey with 137 hydrographic stations within the Scotia Sea and adjoining waters as part of a survey sponsored by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to estimate the biomass and distribution of Antarctic krill in the Scotia Sea. Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) measurements showed great variability in phytoplankton biomass within the Scotia Sea,wi th some areas having among the lowest Chl-a concentrations found in Antarctic waters (o0.1mgm_3 in surface waters) while other areas were among the richest with 410mgm_3. This paper describes the distribution and concentration of Chl-a in the upper 100m of the water column and relates the Chl-a profiles at individual stations to profiles of upper water-column stability,t o the depth of the upper mixed layer, and to the mixing of different water masses. The 58 stations with the lowest Chl-a values in surface waters also had low values for integrated Chl-a (33.9+-9.5mgm_2) and a Chl-a maximum at depths of between 70 and 90m,in contrast to all other stations where deep Chl-a maxima did not occur. The T/S diagrams at many of these stations were indicative of Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) waters. The central Scotia Sea and areas to the west and north of South Georgia had significantly higher integrated Chl-a values (98.1+-46.0mgm_2, n ¼ 57),i n addition to five stations with very high Chl-a values (mean of 359+-270mgm_2). The mean rate of integrated primary production,wh ich was estimated using the Chl-a data and the mean incident solar radiation measured from previous cruises as well as from satellite data,w as estimated to be 994mg carbon m_2 day_1. The temperature profiles at these stations suggested that considerable interleaving and mixing of water types had occurred,w hich was also evident in the T/S diagrams,w hich indicated mixing of ACC waters with coastal waters originating from Bransfield Strait or theWeddell Sea. There was no significant correlation between integrated Chl-a values and the profiles of upper water column stability or the depth of the upper mixed layer. The spatial variability in phytoplankton biomass within the Scotia Sea is discussed in relation to the hypothesis that low iron concentrations are the major factor controlling phytoplankton biomass in these pelagic Antarctic waters and that concentrations of iron available for phytoplankton uptake are strongly influenced by fronts and the mixing of different water masses.

Seasonal use of oceanographic and fisheries management zones by juvenile southern elephant seals ( Mirounga leonina ) from Macquarie Island

The foraging distribution of marine predator populations is important for effective modelling and management of pelagic marine systems. We tracked 31 juvenile southern elephant seals from Macquarie Island (158°57′E, 54°30′S) over their annual post-moult and mid-year trips to sea. We calculated the amount of time spent in regional fisheries management areas and within bounded oceanographic regions. During the austral summer, juvenile seals spent over 90% of their time south of the Antarctic Polar Front and ~80% within fisheries management regions [Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) and exclusive economic zones]. In winter, seals spent ~75% of their time in the region bounded by the Antarctic Polar Front and the southern boundary of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, and ~60% within fisheries management regions. The time spent per region differed significantly between summer and winter. Our results demonstrate that juvenile southern elephant seals from Macquarie Island spent more time south of the Antarctic Polar Front and within fisheries management areas than previously suspected.

Managing Antarctic Marine Living Resources: The CCAMLR Approach

AbstractThis paper documents the experiences of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) in developing, and implementing, its fisheries conservation and management measures. Examples are given to show how the provisions of Article II of the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CAMLR Convention) have been applied in practice. Generally, these provisions strive for an ecosystem-based and precautionary approach to the management of harvested and non-harvested species. Emphasis is given to the development of management measures to deal with: (a) uncertainty associated with new and exploratory fisheries, (b) reduction and elimination (i.e.minimisation) of seabird bycatch in longline fisheries, (c) trade-related measures to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing on CCAMLR species, and (d) general environmental protection. CCAMLR's achievements are evaluated, potential threats to its future effectiveness are identified and some possible counteractions are offered.

Dispersal of female southern elephant seals and their prey consumption during the austral summer: relevance to management and oceanographic zones

Summary Numerical models that predict trophic structure require both accurate information on prey consumption rates and estimates of spatial and temporal variation. In the Southern Ocean little information exists on the spatial and temporal patterns of resource use by predators, so we attempted to examine these patterns for an important Antarctic predator, the southern elephant seal. We (i) defined the area of the ocean used by the adult female component of the elephant seal population at Macquarie Island; (ii) quantified the time these seals spent in the different regions of the Southern Ocean; and (iii) estimated the biomass of fish and squid prey consumed per fortnight and per region. We used data from 42 post‐breeding females collected from 1992 to 2001. The data consisted of locations determined by geo‐location (based on light intensity) recorded using dataloggers. A randomized, incremental analysis of at‐sea locations indicated that a sample of 25 individuals was required to provide 95% coverage of the total area of ocean used. The greatest amount of time (44·6%) was spent in the region between the Antarctic Polar Front (APF) and the Subantarctic Front (SAF). Up to 20% of time was spent south of the Antarctic Circle or within Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) Statistical Subareas, indicating that seals from Macquarie Island are also important summer‐time predators in high Antarctic waters. The adult female population was estimated to consume 122·73–125·81 × 106 MJ for the post‐lactation foraging trip (31 142–31 925 tonnes of prey). Of this, 47·2–53·4% was consumed within the CCAMLR Statistical Subareas and the Australian and New Zealand exclusive economic zones (EEZ). Synthesis and applications. Our study emphasizes that (i) a large sample of individual seals (25) can estimate spatial trends in prey consumption; (ii) much of the estimated prey consumption occurs within fishery‐managed zones, therefore elephant seals should be included in models predicting trophic structure in the Southern Ocean; and (iii) recent commercial fishery catch within these zones is minimal relative to the prey consumed by elephant seals, but increases in fishing activity in these zones may result in competition for marine resources.

Migrations and foraging of juvenile southern elephant seals from Macquarie Island within CCAMLR managed areas

Twenty-three juvenile (8–14 months of age) southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina L.) from Macquarie Island were tracked during 1993 and 1995. Migratory tracks and ocean areas with concentrated activity, presumed to be foraging grounds, were established from location data gathered by attached geolocation-time depth recorders. The seals ranged widely (811–3258 km) and foraging activity centred on oceanographic frontal systems, especially the Antarctic Polar Front and bathymetric features such as the Campbell Plateau region. The seals spent 58.6% of their sea time within managed fishery areas while the remainder was spent on the high seas, an area of unregulated fishing. The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) areas 58.4.1, 88.2 and especially 88.1 were important and distant foraging areas for these juvenile elephant seals. From fisheries records, diet and the foraging ecology studies of the seals there appears to be little, if any, overlap or conflict between the seals and commercial fishing operations within the regulated commercial areas. However, attention is drawn to the possibility of future interactions if Southern Ocean fisheries expand or new ones commence.

Genetic variation among populations of the Antarctic toothfish: evolutionary insights and implications for conservation

Commercial fishing is having an increasingly negative impact on marine biodiversity, with over 70% of the world's fish stocks being fully exploited and, in many cases, overexploited. On top of this, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) has granted commercial fishing permits in the most remote marine environment on earth, the high-latitude Southern Ocean. The primary target of these new commercial fishing ventures is the large pelagic piscivorous predator, the Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni). Unfortunately, little information is available on the demography, genetics, or life history of this large fish. Without such information we have little idea as to the effects of commercial fishing on the population structure and survival of this species. In this study, we focus on patterns of genetic diversity within and between geographically disparate populations of the Antarctic toothfish, using randomly amplified polymorphic DNA markers. Results of our study showed high levels of genetic similarity within and between populations. Despite high levels of genetic similarity, genetic analyses detected significant population structure, including fixed differences among populations, a significant fixation index (Fst) and between-population differentiation via a Mantel test. From a conservation perspective, low levels of genetic diversity may be indicative of relatively small populations that would not be able to withstand heavy commercial fishing pressures. Given that there is evidence for significant genetic structure, it will be important to manage these fisheries in a manner that will help prevent the loss of unique genetic variation from regional overfishing.

Setting a Precautionary Catch Limit for Antarctic Krill

Ar evised precautionary catch limit for Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) in the Scotia Sea of 4 million tons was recently adopted by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). The limit was based on a total biomass of 44.3 million tons, as estimated from an acoustic and net survey of krill across the Scotia Sea sector of the Southern Ocean, and a harvest rate of 9.1%, as determined from an analysis of the risks of exceeding defined conservation criteria. We caution, however, that before the fishery can expand to the 4-million-ton level it will be necessary to establish mechanisms to avoid concentration of fishing effort, particularly in proximity to colonies of land-breeding krill predators, and to consider the effects of krill immigrating into the region from multiple sources.

The direct influence of fishing and fishery-related activities on non-target species in the Southern Ocean with particular emphasis on longline fishing and its impact on albatrosses and petrels – a review

Finfishing in the Southern Ocean began morethan 30 years ago at South Georgia and theKerguelen Islands. Although the fisheryextended further south for a few years in thesecond half of the 1970s, these two islandsremained the most important fishing groundsuntil 1996/97. Longlining for Dissostichuseleginoides began in 1985/86 and remainedrestricted to South Georgia and the KerguelenIslands for more than 10 years. Catches rarelyexceeded 12,000 tonnes in one season. Thefishery, however, is important because the fishare valuable and highly priced. The Commissionfor the Conservation of Antarctic Marine LivingResources (CCAMLR) is regulating fishing in theSouthern Ocean. CCAMLR first receivedinformation on this fishery and its possiblehigh by-catch of albatrosses and larger petrelswas first estimated in 1991. From 1996/97 onwards, illegal, unreportedand unregulated (IUU) fishing expandeddramatically within a single season. Limitedcontrol could be exerted in those areas whichwere under national jurisdiction. A number ofdetrimental effects from fishing activitiescould be seen on birds and mammals. Estimatedcatches in the illegal fishery amounted toseveral tens of thousands of birds per seasonwith little appparent reduction over the firstfour seasons. The sudden development of theillegal fishery placed a great strain onCCAMLR's fishery management. Vessels fishinglegally gradually improved their compliancewith CCAMLR conservation measures over the lastcouple of years. This may be insignificant compared to the potential in the IUU fisheriesbut testifies to our ability to makesignificant improvement using simple mitigationmethods. After setting precautionary catch limits in1997, CCAMLR was able to adopt a `CatchDocumentation Scheme' (CDS) in November 1999which came into force on 7 May 2000. Mauritius,the main port where IUU fish were landed in2000, was willing to accede to CCAMLR and adoptthe CDS. An International Plan of Action forReducing Incidental Catch of Seabirds inLongline Fisheries was adopted by the FAO inJune 1999 and various activities ofgovernmental and non-governmental groups alsoseemed likely to address the problem moreeffectively with the assistance of the fishingindustry.

MODELING THE CONSEQUENCES OF ANTARCTIC KRILL HARVESTING ON ANTARCTIC FUR SEALS

In terms of the convention governing the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), management advice for the Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) fishery should take the needs of the predators of krill into account in order to reduce the risk of deleterious impacts on such predators (e.g., baleen whales and numerous fish, seal, penguin, and flying bird species). A single species yield model is currently being used by the CCAMLR Scientific Committee to recommend an annual krill catch limit, which is expressed as a proportion (γ = 0.116) of a survey biomass estimate. This approach takes the needs of predators into account in only a crude way by assuming that a median krill escapement of 75% of its unexploited biomass would be sufficient to meet the needs of predators. A krill–predator modeling procedure is presented that could be used to directly assess the impact of krill harvesting on krill predator populations and therefore to revise this recommended harvesting level (γ) for Antarctic krill. Application of a deterministic form of this model to an Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella) data set from Bird Island, South Georgia, Antarctica, indicates that the level of krill fishing intensity (γ) that would reduce this population to half the equilibrium size in the absence of krill fishing (γhalf) lies between 0.03 and 0.18, which includes the level recommended by CCAMLR. This large range results primarily from the sensitivity of the model to the maximum growth rate parameter, for which a range of 5–15%/yr is investigated. A plausible range of values for this parameter (5–15%/yr) results in estimated γhalf values from 0.04 to 0.23. Stochastic calculations (which take account of interannual fluctuations in the abundance of the krill population due to recruitment variability) yield higher estimated γhalf values than the less realistic deterministic calculations. However, simulation tests indicate that the estimated γhalf values are biased upward; this modeling approach is therefore likely to yield γhalf values that would lead to a depletion of the Antarctic fur seal population to more than half its pristine size.

Review—The CCAMLR Ecosystem Monitoring Programme

The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources states as part of its objective the maintenance of ecological relationships and the prevention of irreversible changes to the ecosystem. The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) has implemented an Ecosystem Monitoring Programme (CEMP) for the Antarctic marine environment to give effect to this requirement. The design phase of the programme took three years. The programme has been fully implemented since 1987 and involves monitoring selected predator, prey and environmental indicators of ecosystem performance. The central aim of the programme is the detection of changes in these indicators and the interpretation as to whether these changes are due to natural events or the harvesting of marine living resources. The core of the programme is the acquisition, centralised storage and analysis of standardised monitoring data combined with a strong emphasis on empirical and modelling based research. This both modifies the monitoring approach in line with changing requirements and creates a sound scientific background against which to test the effects of management options on components of the Antarctic ecosystem. The development of procedures for translating monitoring results into management advice is a critical part of the programme. Management takes the form of the regulation of fishing activities. Since 1987 CEMP has collected data on six bird and seal species at 15 sites around the Antarctic. Up to 14 parameters of predator performance and 10 parameters of prey and environmental performance are collected at each site. The data sets collected by CEMP form an extremely powerful tool for understanding and managing the Antarctic marine ecosystem.

Marine debris surveys at Bird Island, South Georgia 1990–1995

The Antarctic marine environment has relatively few direct sources of man-made marine debris; however, there is concern over the dangers posed to wildlife by increasing amounts of such debris. Between 1990 and 1995 beached debris was monitored at Bird Island, South Georgia. This was part of a programme developed by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to monitor compliance with waste disposal under MARPOL and the effectiveness of additional regulations to reduce entanglement of marine mammals and birds. Overall, and in all but one year, the highest incidence of debris occurred during the winter months when 75% of all items were collected. The most numerous category overall (76%), and in all samples since 1991, was pieces of synthetic line as used in the long-line fishery for the Patagonian toothfish Dissostichus eleginoides around South Georgia. Packaging bands (6%) and polythene bags (6%) were the next commonest items. There was a substantial increase in the number of items found ashore in 1995 which coincided with an apparent increase in the long-line fishing effort in the area. The increase in the incidence of synthetic line found ashore corresponds to the increase in the proportion of Antarctic fur seal Arctocephalus gazella entangled in this material at South Georgia in a parallel study. An increasing use of environmentally-aware scientific observers on all fishing vessels, leading to an increased awareness of existing legislation, should result in less man-made debris entering the marine environment in the area around South Georgia.

Managing Southern Ocean krill and fish stocks in a changing environment

Management of Antarctic krill,Euphausia superba, and the mackerel icefish,Champsocephalus gunnariunder the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is discussed in relation to changes in their distribution and abundance arising from variation in circulation of the circumpolar current. It is concluded that on a Southern Ocean scale it is currently not possible to detect change but on a local scale, such as at South Georgia, major changes are detectable. These changes affect the krill fishery directly in terms of total catch and the way the fleets are deployed. Major local reductions in krill are thought to have a significant effect on natural mortality of the icefish.

Krill fishing activity in the southwest Atlantic

Commercial krill fishing has been undertaken in the Southern Ocean for twenty years. Recently the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) introduced a reporting scheme to summarize catch data from half degree of latitude by one degree of longitude rectangles. These data demonstrate that commercial fishing in the southwest Atlantic is concentrated in the shelf zone. Certain krill predators are also restricted to this area whilst collecting food for their young during the summer. Krill fishing takes place year round, moving northwards in winter as the ice edge advances.