Commission For The Conservation Of Antarctic Marine Living Resources Research Articles

Establishing marine protected areas in the southern ocean, lessons for the BBNJ agreement

This paper first gives a brief overview of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)’s struggle to establish Antarctic Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). The paper then addresses the question: what lessons can countries learn from CCAMLR’s experience in establishing high seas MPAs under the Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement? The paper finds that the final text of the BBNJ Agreement did largely reflect CCAMLR’s experience when it comes to MPAs. This is particularly so with respect to 1) clarification of the relationship between conservation and use; 2) the interpretation and application of a science-based precautionary approach; and 3) consensus-based decision-making process. The paper concludes that the insights CCAMLR provides for navigating geopolitical tensions between major powers is an important reference for the future operation of the BBNJ Agreement.

Evaluating the impacts of the Ross Sea region marine protected area for Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) with a spatially-explicit population model

In 2016, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) adopted what was then the world's largest marine protected area (MPA), the Ross Sea region marine protected area or “RSrMPA.” Only one fishery operates in the Ross Sea region (RSr). This fishery targets Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni), which has an ontogenically-segregated life-history spanning both the RSrMPA and areas fully open to fishing. Here, we present a spatially-explicit population model for RSr Antarctic toothfish, which we use to run projections to evaluate the impacts of the RSrMPA for the species. We considered six alternative scenarios, which consisted of the combination of two spatial management scenarios (MPA versus no-MPA situations) and three different spatial patterns of future fishing. The same CCAMLR decision rules were employed to determine a total catch limit in each case. Our results indicate that access to productive fishing grounds continues to exist with the RSrMPA, the total catch limit and fishery catch rates are not impacted, and the RSrMPA specific objectives relating to Antarctic toothfish are being met. The no-take fraction of the RSrMPA (the “General Protection Zones”) protects areas of ecological importance for the species (juvenile settlement areas, migration corridors for maturing individuals, and adult feeding areas), while the partial-take fraction of the MPA (the “Special Research Zone”) allows for the continuity and integrity of a critical tagging program. Our modelling framework provides valuable information to inform resource management at CCAMLR and could be employed to explore other proposed large-scale MPAs in the Southern Ocean.

The influence of Antarctic governance on marine protected areas in the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Agreement negotiations

With the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement adopted, the negotiations process left questions related to what would be included in the final text and how the BBNJ Agreement architecture would function. The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), an international body, has successfully established high seas marine protected areas (MPAs), a key aspect of the BBNJ Agreement. Here, we investigate if and how CCAMLR has influenced negotiations on the BBNJ Agreement and how it may influence the forthcoming structure. This work used ethnographic notes and documents from the negotiations and interviews with actors who overlapped at both the BBNJ negotiations and the CCAMLR meetings to elucidate themes of influence that CCAMLR has had on the BBNJ negotiations. We found that CCAMLR is influencing the BBNJ negotiations in several ways, including through setting precedent and as an example for lessons learned. Additionally, we found that there was a divergence of views on whether CCAMLR would be considered a competent body by the decision-making mechanism of the BBNJ Agreement to establish MPAs due to the issues CCAMLR faces on reaching consensus. We found that some aspects of CCAMLR, such as the exclusivity (i.e., restricted to only actors working within the CCAMLR space) was perceived negatively by interviewees, thus affecting the BBNJ Agreement negotiations through hidden red lines. With the BBNJ Agreement adopted, there is still the potential for CCAMLR to be an example for the BBNJ structure and to be a participant in the BBNJ Agreement architecture.

Managing for climate resilient fisheries: Applications to the Southern Ocean

Climate change is having profound effects on populations of fished species and the ecosystems on which they depend, lending to a growing body of work that advocates for climate resilience to be a priority in fishery management. Here, we provide a comprehensive analysis of the tools needed to manage for climate resiliency. The Antarctic region is among the most vulnerable to climate change, and thus, we then consider climate resilient management tools utilized by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), the body responsible for the management of Antarctic marine living resources as part of the Antarctic Treaty System. We note progress, gaps, and opportunities for implementation. Across the literature, ecosystem-based management was cited as an appropriate tool for climate resilience of marine ecosystems, as was the use of climate model outputs (projections and simulations), marine protected areas (MPAs), and dynamic stock assessments. CCAMLR has a unique position where its Convention effectively mandates the principles of an ecosystem-based precautionary approach for managing fisheries, and many of its Member States have been advocating for climate initiatives within this approach. While CCAMLR has made limited overall progress towards ensuring climate resilience, it has advanced in some areas, such as MPA implementation, developing a risk assessment for krill, and including statements on climate change in fishery reports, although there is much work to be done. While climate change remains a worldwide issue that must be addressed on a global scale, CCAMLR holds the responsibility for adaptively managing Southern Ocean marine living resources for climate resilience.

Commercial krill fishing within a foraging supergroup of fin whales in the Southern Ocean.

Commercial krill fishing within a foraging supergroup of fin whales in the Southern Ocean.

Advancing Antarctic climate change policy: upcoming opportunities for scientists and policymakers to work together

AbstractClimate change is increasingly affecting Antarctica and the rest of the world. Urgent policy responses are needed to mitigate its associated impacts. Engagement of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM), Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) and Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP) with the issue of climate change has culminated in several important meetings planned for 2023/2024. Researchers play a crucial role in the provision of the best available science to inform action by Antarctic policymakers, and the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) clearly will play an important role in representing the Antarctic science community and delivering the latest science into the upcoming meetings. However, recognizing the ATCM's call for Parties and other stakeholders to bring experts to its meeting to support the work and with acknowledgement by CCAMLR and CEP of the value of including a range of scientific experts, we highlight the opportunity for and importance of researchers engaging proactively to offer further bespoke scientific support. Given the urgency of addressing climate change in Antarctica and beyond, every effort is needed from researchers and policymakers to work together to facilitate the necessary policy responses at both the national and international level.

Using a risk assessment framework to spatially and temporally spread the fishery catch limit for Antarctic krill in the west Antarctic Peninsula: A template for krill fisheries elsewhere

The west Antarctic Peninsula is an important breeding and foraging location for marine predators that consume Antarctic Krill (Euphasia superba). It is also an important focus for the commercial fishery for Antarctic krill, managed by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). Aiming to minimise ecosystem risks from fishing, whilst enabling a sustainable fishery, CCAMLR has recently endorsed a new management framework that incorporates information about krill biomass estimates, sustainable harvest rates and a risk assessment to spatially and temporally distribute catch limits. We have applied a risk assessment framework to the west Antarctic Peninsula region (Subarea 48.1), with the aim of identifying the most appropriate management units by which to spatially and temporally distribute the local krill catch limit. We use the best data currently available for implementing the approach, recognising the framework is flexible and can accommodate new data, when available, to improve future estimates of risk. We evaluated 36 catch distribution scenarios for managing the fishery and provide advice about the scale at which the krill fishery can be managed. We show that the spatial distribution with which the fishery currently operates presents some of the highest risks of all scenarios evaluated. We highlight important issues that should be resolved, including data gaps, uncertainty and incorporating ecosystem dynamics. We emphasize that for the risk assessment to provide robust estimates of risk, it is important that the management units are at a similar scale to ecosystem function. Managing the fishery at small scales has the lowest risk but may necessitate a high level of management interaction. Our results offer advice to CCAMLR about near-term management and this approach could provide a template for the rest of the southwest Atlantic (Area 48), or fisheries elsewhere. As each data layer influences the outcome of the risk assessment, we recommend that updated estimates of the distribution, abundance and consumption of krill, and estimates of available krill biomass will be key as CCAMLR moves forward to develop a longer-term management strategy.

Оценка биологической безопасности антарктического криля Euphausia superba (Dana, 1852) из вод Атлантического океана

The development of the Antarctic krill fishery is a promising direction of Russian food industry. Euphausia superba is the largest source of animal protein in the global oceans. According to the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), the year of 2021 saw a steady increase in the global catch of krill. The Government of the Russian Federation approved a program for the development of the oceanic fishery for crustaceans. The assessment of its biological safety is of particular interest because the extraction of this raw material in Russia is currently undergoing a restoration process. The purpose of the study was to analyze samples of Antarctic krill E. superba for parasites and microorganisms that could affect its sanitary condition.
 The study featured the microplankton of E. superba crustaceans (n = 130) caught in 2019–2020 by the Federal Agency for Fishery. The methods included an incomplete helminthological analysis, as well as compressor, microbiological, and histological studies.
 The visual inspection, helminthological dissection, and compressor microscopy revealed no helminth larvae or protozoa. In a microbiological study for safety indicators according to CU TR 021/2011, EAEU TR 040/2016 and Sanitary Rules and Norms SanPiN 2.3.2.1078-01, the quantity of mesophilic aerobic and facultative anaerobic microorganisms (QMAFAnM) were did not exceed 1.0×103 at 37 and 25°C. Opportunistic and pathogenic microorganisms were not detected. When examining cultivate for the isolation of Staphylococci, were found Cocci, but we did not identify them. When the material was sown on the Sabouraud nutrient medium at 24°C, Penicillium microscopic fungi grew on the plates in the amount of 3.0×102. Histological examination of carapace, gills, and internal organs detected no parasitological organisms, pathological inclusions, or any tissue changes.
 The Antarctic krill contained no parasites and was microbiologically safe. After tests on Vibrio parahemolyticus and Listeria monocytogenes, it can be used in the food industry.

Two scales of distribution and biomass of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) in the eastern sector of the CCAMLR Division 58.4.2 (55°E to 80°E).

Regular monitoring is an important component of the successful management of pelagic animals of interest to commercial fisheries. Here we provide a biomass estimate for Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) in the eastern sector of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) Division 58.4.2 (55°E to 80°E; area = 775,732 km2) using data collected during an acoustic-trawl survey carried out in February and March 2021. Using acoustic data collected in day-time and trawl data, areal biomass density was estimated as 8.3 gm-2 giving a total areal krill biomass of 6.48 million tonnes, with a 28.9% coefficient of variation (CV). The inaccessibility of the East Antarctic makes fisheries-independent surveys of Antarctic krill expensive and time consuming, so we also assessed the efficacy of extrapolating smaller surveys to a wider area. During the large-scale survey a smaller scale survey (centre coordinates -66.28°S 63.35°E, area = 4,902 km2) was conducted. We examine how representative krill densities from the small-scale (Mawson box) survey were over a latitudinal range by comparing krill densities from the large-scale survey split into latitudinal bands. We found the small scale survey provided a good representation of the statistical distribution of krill densities within its latitudinal band (KS-test, D = 0.048, p-value = 0.98), as well as mean density (t-test p-value = 0.44), but not outside of the band. We recommend further in situ testing of this approach.

Research funding and economic aspects of the Antarctic krill fishery

The Antarctic krill fishery has increased in recent years to more than two-thirds of an interim catch level of 620,000 tonnes in the Atlantic Sector, FAO Fishery Area 48. Members of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) have expressed concern that catches at these levels, if taken from small areas, could impact krill-dependent predators. In recent years, CCAMLR has been unable to agree on small-scale spatial management measures influencing the spatial distribution of krill catch. Some krill-fishing Members contend that more science is needed as CCAMLR is obliged to use the precautionary approach informed by the best available science. The availability of scientific information is dependent on funding and these considerations should be included in decision-making to ensure the costs for the necessary research to manage the fishery will be met. In this article we review the economics of the Antarctic krill fishery, the beneficiaries of the fishery, the costs of producing the scientific information currently available and the extent of current contributions. Based on this analysis, we propose that CCAMLR Scientific Committee designs a research strategy for the krill fishery in which research needs are identified, costed and implemented. This should include a funding mechanism to sustain these research activities and ensure appropriate contributions from those benefiting from the fishery.

A Summary of United States Research and Monitoring in Support of the Ross Sea Region Marine Protected Area

Due to the remarkable ecological value of the Ross Sea, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) adopted a large-scale Ross Sea region marine protected area (RSRMPA) in 2016. Since then, many CCAMLR Members have conducted research and monitoring in the region. In 2021, the U.S. Ross Sea science community convened a workshop to collate, synthesize, and coordinate U.S. research and monitoring in the RSRMPA. Here we present workshop results, including an extensive synthesis of the peer-reviewed literature related to the region during the period 2010–early 2021. From the synthesis, several things stand out. First, the quantity and breadth of U.S. Ross Sea research compares to a National Science Foundation Long Term Ecological Research project, especially involving McMurdo Sound. These studies are foundational in assessing effectiveness of the RSRMPA. Second, climate change and fishing remain the two factors most critical to changing ecosystem structure and function in the region. Third, studies that integrate ecological processes with physical oceanographic change continue to be needed, especially in a directed and coordinated research program, in order to effectively separate climate from fishing to explain trends among designated indicator species.

Applying Marine Protected Area Frameworks to Areas beyond National Jurisdiction

Marine protected areas (MPAs) can provide a range of ecological benefits. Frameworks—including the IUCN protected area categories and The MPA Guide—offer tools towards evaluating an MPA’s objectives, types, Level of Protection, and potential effectiveness. However, the majority of MPAs exist in national waters, raising the question of how these frameworks apply in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ). We evaluated the existing ABNJ MPAs in the Antarctic designated through the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) using the two above mentioned frameworks. The newly released The MPA Guide, which complements guidance from the IUCN protected area categories, provides perhaps the most exhaustive framework as it seeks to evaluate implementation, enabling conditions, and outcomes. The CCAMLR MPAs ranged from Category 1A (for IUCN)/Highly Protected (for The MPA Guide) to Category IV (for IUCN)/Lightly Protected (for The MPA Guide) due to differences in management objectives and activities occurring within the zones of the MPAs. Given ongoing negotiations for a new international, legally binding treaty for high seas biodiversity, evaluating an MPA using these existing frameworks will prove useful to allow for a full comprehensive picture of an MPA and what it can expect to achieve.

Contrasting life-history traits of two toothfish (Dissostichus spp.) species at their range edge around the South Sandwich Islands

The South Sandwich Islands (SSI), a chain of volcanic islands in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean, are home to two large notothenoid species: the Patagonian toothfish Dissostichus eleginoides and the Antarctic toothfish Dissostichus mawsoni. Both species support valuable fisheries throughout the Southern Ocean under management of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). The SSI region, which is located south of the Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current Front, has a diverse and distinct biodiversity and it represents a range edge for the distribution of both toothfish species. In this paper we have updated and expanded previous biological analyses with recent data, explored the stock hypotheses and links of these species to other regions, and investigated the role of the SSI archipelago in the life cycles of both toothfish species, where they overlap in their distribution. We conclude that Patagonian toothfish around the SSI are linked to the adjacent South Georgia population, but have some unique characteristics, including faster growth and better somatic condition, possibly reflecting ‘Bergmann's rule’ which states that body size increases with decreasing temperature and increasing latitude. By comparison, the Antarctic toothfish at the SSI appear to be the northern extent of a larger stock connecting further south towards the Antarctic continent. Finally, we consider the relative importance of the SSI in the life cycle of both species, including in the context of climatic changes to this region.

Estimating the average distribution of Antarctic krill Euphausia superba at the northern Antarctic Peninsula during austral summer and winter

This study was performed to aid the management of the fishery for Antarctic krill Euphausia superba. Krill are an important component of the Antarctic marine ecosystem, providing a key food source for many marine predators. Additionally, krill are the target of the largest commercial fishery in the Southern Ocean, for which annual catches have been increasing and concentrating in recent years. The krill fishery is managed by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), which has endorsed a new management framework that requires information about the spatial distribution and biomass of krill. Here, we use krill density estimates from acoustic surveys and a GAMM framework to model habitat properties associated with high krill biomass during summer and winter in the northern Antarctic Peninsula region, an area important to the commercial fishery. Our models show elevated krill density associated with the shelf break, increased sea surface temperature, moderate chlorophyll-a concentration and increased salinity. During winter, our models show associations with shallow waters (< 1500 m) with low sea-ice concentration, medium sea-level anomaly and medium current speed. Our models predict temporal averages of the distribution and density of krill, which can be used to aid CCAMLR’s revised ecosystem approach to fisheries management. Our models have the potential to help in the spatial and temporal design of future acoustic surveys that would preclude the need for modelled extrapolations. We highlight that the ecosystem approach to fisheries management of krill critically depends upon such field observations at relevant spatial and temporal scales.

Spatial and temporal catch concentrations for Antarctic krill: Implications for fishing performance and precautionary management in the Southern Ocean

The undergoing rapid climate changes recorded along the Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) in combination with the increasing seasonal catches reported by the krill fishery have raised concerns as to whether the management strategy established by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is effectively avoiding impacts on the krill stock and related ecosystem.Despite the current fixed catch limit being spread across fishing areas to reduce spatial catches concentrations, our 38-year analysis revealed the highest historical spatial (ton/km2) and temporal (ton/day) fishing concentration levels across the WAP and South Orkney Islands. Higher seasonal catches in recent decades removed persistently within the same small fishing areas and during shorter fishing seasons are key factors influencing this situation.We used the catch per unit effort (CPUE) as a measure of fishing performance. CPUE was standardized using a GAMM model taking into account operational factors such as fleet composition, trawling methods, seasonality and daily catches, and we detected negative CPUE trends over time and across the different fishing areas. Our results suggest that the fishing performance have responded to the elevated spatio-temporal fishing concentration and changes in sea-ice. We discuss whether the negative CPUE trends are caused by fishing-induced depletion or driven by other factors such as krill flux, reduction and contraction of krill abundance and increased cetacean foraging (due recovery of whale populations). Finally, we also highlight the need to expand the survey's coverage (by acoustic or net-based methods) to the new, highly fished, and non-monitored areas such as Gerlache Strait, which is an important area for krill and dependent predators.

High‐resolution satellite imagery meets the challenge of monitoring remote marine protected areas in the Antarctic and beyond

AbstractRemote, high‐latitude oceans can prove challenging for the designation and implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs), partly due to issues in monitoring inaccessible localities and large spatial scales. A lack of protection combined with damage from growing human activities has contributed to the degradation of some of the Earth's richest marine biodiversity and highlights the urgent need to support improved marine conservation. High‐resolution satellite imagery (VHR; 0.3–0.6 m spatial resolution) provides a much‐needed tool for monitoring sentinel species in remote oceans, which would strengthen current and future MPA research and monitoring programs across the globe. This perspective specifies how recent advances in VHR studies have contributed to knowledge regarding occurrence, habitat suitability, and abundance of mesopredators in the Southern Ocean. We demonstrate how knowledge gained through VHR offers a cost‐effective and easily accessible method for collecting previously unobtainable data to inform a representative network of Southern Ocean MPAs, and how the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) could utilize this technology. As VHR and automated detection algorithms continue to improve, we showcase a promising opportunity to use these methods to complement current research and monitoring efforts, thus strengthening MPA efforts in the Southern Ocean and beyond.

Conservation Law in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean: the Antarctic Treaty System, conservation, and environmental protection

ABSTRACT The Antarctic Treaty System provides the corpus of law that governs the obligations of its Parties to protect and conserve the Antarctic environment. The System consists principally of the Antarctic Treaty (the Treaty), the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CAMLR Convention), and the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Environmental Protocol). The Antarctic Treaty establishes the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting – the body that makes decisions under the provisions of the Treaty and Environmental Protocol. The CAMLR Convention establishes the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) – its decision-making body. Together, these two international bodies are responsible for the modern-day conservation and environmental management regimes for Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. This paper looks at the scope of law developed under the Antarctic Treaty System and its evolution; and at the interaction between the different components of the Antarctic Treaty System. The paper also forecasts some of the future challenges to conservation and environmental protection in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean.

The ecosystem approach to management of the Antarctic krill fishery - the ‘devils are in the detail’ at small spatial and temporal scales

Fishery demand for Antarctic krill is increasing, and projected to continue increasing into the future. Krill has the potential to contribute approximately 10% to all future marine landings, adding significantly to global food security. However, the fishery is effectively data-limited so is currently managed using precautionary assessments that relate to large spatial and temporal scales that preclude the need for fine-scale ecological data. To respond to recent changes in fishery operation and to mitigate possible ecological impacts, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) plans to revise its management strategy so that it takes into account ecosystem operation at smaller spatial and temporal scales, such as those relevant to krill-dependent predators. Here, we consider how catches in coastal areas potentially present challenges for these predators, where cumulative catches over the fishing season can sometimes be greater than local consumption by predators, and sometimes greater than the standing stock of krill within an area because of krill transport and replenishment by ocean currents. Protecting feeding areas used by land-based predators such as penguins and seals, whilst also offering a high level of protection for pelagic predators such as some species of fish and recovering populations of cetaceans, will require innovative solutions. We highlight critical ecological research needed to reduce management uncertainty. This is important as we demonstrate that krill consumption by predators in near-shore coastal habitats relies absolutely upon krill movement and oceanographic transport. We also highlight the need to improve understanding about krill behaviour, especially in relation to observed seasonal changes in krill biomass. Finally, we highlight that without up-to-date data about changes in krill, krill-dependent predator populations and their oceanographic environment, management will remain challenging in the context of increasing fishing pressure, recovering populations of marine mammals and a changing climate. • Antarctic krill fishing is increasing, and is likely to increase into the future. • Changes in fishing highlight the need for management at relevant ecological scales. • Krill demand by penguins and whales is a key management concern in coastal habitats. • Information about krill behaviour and movement in ocean currents is also important. • Precautionary management of krill requires more detailed ecological understanding.

3. Antarctica

This report provides an overview of the policy developments in the past year relating to Antarctica. It only focuses on some issues discussed at the thirty-ninth meeting of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) held online on 27–30 October: impacts of climate change on the conservation of Antarctic marine living resources; illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing in the Convention Area; and implementation of objectives of the Convention. Other issues discussed at the CCAMLR meeting include the management of marine resources with the advice from the Scientific Committee, and the review and adoption of new conservation measures, among others (all reports and documents relating to CCAMLR meetings can be found at <https://www.ccamlr.org/en/meetings/26>). The forty-third Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting and the twenty-third Committee for Environmental Protection meeting were cancelled due to the pandemic.

Combined Abundance of All Vulnerable Marine Ecosystem Indicator Taxa Inadequate as Sole Determiner of Vulnerability, Antarctic Peninsula

In order to achieve conservation objectives and preserve the biodiversity of the Southern Ocean, a variety of ecosystems must be protected. This holds especially true for the benthic communities of this region that are characteristically mosaic in their spatial distributions. As such, disparate communities cannot be comprehensively assessed by a single blanket methodology. Herein, evidence appropriate to the diverse characteristics of the communities encountered during a submarine expedition demonstrates the particular vulnerability of four sites that exemplify VMEs as defined by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) and the UN’s Fisheries and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Three sites are identified as VMEs based on highly significant abundances of indicator taxa. A fourth is identified based on a high density of cold-water coral taxa, many of which were not observed in abundance at the sites that were triggered as vulnerable by a significantly high abundance of all indicator taxa. The VME at this latter site was richly diverse in coral taxa, many of which are considered particularly vulnerable to climate change, as well as critical for their potential for genuine blue carbon sequestration. As of November, 2018, all four sites are now registered with CCAMLR as VMEs and thus, are afforded protection from all bottom fishing activities. However, if consideration isn’t given to the composition and/or diversity of VME indicator taxa present, in addition to overall abundance/density, some of the most vulnerable communities are left at risk. A blanket threshold for all VME taxa adhered to in fisheries management of the Southern Ocean, and other high seas areas, is grossly insufficient. Without taking a more precautionary approach to identifying and protecting VMEs, CCAMLR will not be able to meet its conservation objectives and may even be putting Antarctic fisheries at risk.