Commercial Spaceflight Research Articles

Proposal for Organizing The Industrial Cooperation on Commercial Space Safety and Technical Standards

ABSTRACT For commercial human spaceflight to flourish and expand, industry has to develop a notion of safety as the collective responsibility and common strategic business goal of all members. In 2004, the U.S. private spaceflight industry welcomed a law (i.e. the Commercial Space Launch Amendment Act (CSLAA)) postponing the ability of FAA to issue safety regulations, except for aspects of public safety until 2012. The deadline was later moved to 2015. The law, currently undergoing a second postponement until 2020, offers a historic opportunity for space industry to engage in the development of a comprehensive set of industrial consensus standards, based on the experience gained in more than 50years of government programs. This paper proposes framework and rules of an industrial cooperation for consensus standards, in the form of textual content for a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU). Those standards, when established, could become the basis of a mixed regulatory regime, where industry takes care of self-certifying the vehicles safety, while government regulators would continue to cover launch and reentry operations for all aspect of public safety. This paper also suggest to carry out standardization activities within the broader scope of a Space Safety Institute.

Fire in Orbit: Equipping the Commercial Spaceflight Industry for Fighting Fire in Micro-Gravity

For several years, Orbital Technologies (ORBITEC) has had keen interest in the development of a portable fire suppression system intended for use in commercial spaceflight applications. With the aid of recent developments in fine water mist (FWM) atomization technologies, and partnerships with the University of Wisconsin – Platteville, work is commencing to develop a portable fire extinguisher (PFE). The extinguisher will be capable of operation in both gravity and microgravity environments regardless of orientation, and eliminate the use of toxic carbon dioxide as a fluid suppressant. The extinguisher will take advantage of the unique physics of microgravity to better suppress fires compared to previously used equipment. The following report outlines baseline research into the historical precedence of spacecraft fires, and common modes of fire ignition in microgravity. From this information we investigate design considerations necessary for the construction of a prototype PFE, as well as the market value of such a device.

Considerations Toward Defining Medical “Levels of Care” for Commercial Spaceflight

While all modes of human transportation introduce some degree of risk to life and health, the rigors of spaceflight present particularly challenging physiological and environmental factors that occur under very unforgiving operational circumstances. Commercial spaceflight will face issues similar to those experienced on prior traditional space missions, as well as encounter other health concerns more common to civil aviation. Consequently, in addition to vehicle design safety considerations, some form of medical care equipment is likely to be made available as good practice. Lessons learned from past experiences in space along with existing commercial aviation standards offer valuable insight into defining appropriate medical care needs for the commercial space industry. This article outlines current practices and rationale from these related applications, and offers considerations for establishing effective medical level of care provisions for future commercial spaceflight operations.

Preflight screening techniques for centrifuge-simulated suborbital spaceflight.

Historically, space has been the venue of the healthy individual. With the advent of commercial spaceflight, we face the novel prospect of routinely exposing spaceflight participants (SPFs) with multiple comorbidities to the space environment. Preflight screening procedures must be developed to identify those individuals at increased risk during flight. We examined the responses of volunteers to centrifuge accelerations mimicking commercial suborbital spaceflight profiles to evaluate how potential SFPs might tolerate such forces. We evaluated our screening process for medical approval of subjects for centrifuge participation for applicability to commercial spaceflight operations. All registered subjects completed a medical questionnaire, physical examination, and electrocardiogram. Subjects with identified concerns including cardiopulmonary disease, hypertension, and diabetes were required to provide documentation of their conditions. There were 335 subjects who registered for the study, 124 who completed all prescreening, and 86 subjects who participated in centrifuge trials. Due to prior medical history, five subjects were disqualified, most commonly for psychiatric reasons or uncontrolled medical conditions. Of the subjects approved, four individuals experienced abnormal physiological responses to centrifuge profiles, including one back strain and three with anxiety reactions. The screening methods used were judged to be sufficient to identify individuals physically capable of tolerating simulated suborbital flight. Improved methods will be needed to identify susceptibility to anxiety reactions. While severe or uncontrolled disease was excluded, many subjects successfully participated in centrifuge trials despite medical histories of disease that are disqualifying under historical spaceflight screening regimes. Such screening techniques are applicable for use in future commercial spaceflight operations.

The Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer Mission

The Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) mission was designed to address long-standing scientific questions about the Moon’s environment, including the assessment of the composition of the lunar atmosphere, and characterization of the lunar dust environment at low orbital altitudes. LADEE was derived from the Modular Common Spacecraft Bus design that was developed at NASA Ames Research Center; it used modularized subassemblies and existing commercial spaceflight hardware to reduce cost. LADEE was launched on the very first Minotaur V, and was also the first deep space mission launched from Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia. LADEE was equipped with two in situ instruments and a remote sensing instrument to address the atmosphere and dust measurement requirements. LADEE also carried the first deep-space optical communications demonstration, the Lunar Laser Communications Demonstration. LADEE was launched in early September, 2013, took science data for over 140 days in low lunar orbit, and impacted the surface on April 18, 2014.

Implanted medical devices in the radiation environment of commercial spaceflight.

Some commercial spaceflight participants (SFPs) may have medical conditions that require implanted medical devices (IMDs), such as cardiac pacemakers, defibrillators, insulin pumps, or similar electronic devices. The effect of space radiation on the function of IMDs is unknown. This review will identify known effects of terrestrial and aviation electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radiation on IMDs in order to provide insight into the potential effects of radiation exposures in the space environment. A systematic literature review was conducted on available literature on human studies involving the effects of EMI as well as diagnostic and therapeutic radiation on IMDs. The literature review identified potential transient effects from EMI and diagnostic radiation levels as low as 10 mGy on IMDs. High-energy, therapeutic, ionizing radiation can cause more permanent device malfunctions at doses as low as 40 mGy. Radiation doses from suborbital flight altitudes and durations are anticipated to be less than those experienced during an average round-trip, cross-country airline flight and are unlikely to result in significant detriment, though longer, orbital flights may expose SFPs to doses potentially harmful to IMD function. Individuals with IMDs should experience few, if any, radiation-related device malfunctions during suborbital flight, but could have problems with radiation exposures associated with longer, orbital flights.

Invited review article: Advanced light microscopy for biological space research.

As commercial space flights have become feasible and long-term extraterrestrial missions are planned, it is imperative that the impact of space travel and the space environment on human physiology be thoroughly characterized. Scrutinizing the effects of potentially detrimental factors such as ionizing radiation and microgravity at the cellular and tissue level demands adequate visualization technology. Advanced light microscopy (ALM) is the leading tool for non-destructive structural and functional investigation of static as well as dynamic biological systems. In recent years, technological developments and advances in photochemistry and genetic engineering have boosted all aspects of resolution, readout and throughput, rendering ALM ideally suited for biological space research. While various microscopy-based studies have addressed cellular response to space-related environmental stressors, biological endpoints have typically been determined only after the mission, leaving an experimental gap that is prone to bias results. An on-board, real-time microscopical monitoring device can bridge this gap. Breadboards and even fully operational microscope setups have been conceived, but they need to be rendered more compact and versatile. Most importantly, they must allow addressing the impact of gravity, or the lack thereof, on physiologically relevant biological systems in space and in ground-based simulations. In order to delineate the essential functionalities for such a system, we have reviewed the pending questions in space science, the relevant biological model systems, and the state-of-the art in ALM. Based on a rigorous trade-off, in which we recognize the relevance of multi-cellular systems and the cellular microenvironment, we propose a compact, but flexible concept for space-related cell biological research that is based on light sheet microscopy.

The Human Challenges of Commercial Spaceflight: An Overview of Medical Research Conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch Through the Federal Aviation Administration Center of Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation

Abstract In 2010, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) announced the institution of a Center of Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation (COE CST), a partnership of multiple academic institutions assembled to address the numerous challenges involved in the commercial spaceflight industry. The University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston, Texas, was included in this collaboration to provide medical insight into the human challenges of commercial spaceflight. This article will serve to outline the human spaceflight research tasks as designated by the FAA COE CST, and to discuss the research that has been conducted to address many of the risks and challenges involved in human commercial spaceflight.

Models for Codifying International Rules for Jurisdiction, Liability, Safety and Accident Investigation for Commercial Passenger Spaceflight

The prospect of commercial passenger spaceflight presents an unique opportunity to the space community, comprised not only of the scientists, engineers, enthusiasts and entrepreneurs, but also diplomats, governments, policy makers and legislators, to formulate an internationally acceptable set of requirements, standards and procedures that would give international consistency to operators of commercial passenger spaceflight, both for space tourism and for terrestrial transportation. It is important that the international community avail itself of this opportunity before various countries decide to become “flags of convenience” or to impose more stringent standards than overseas operators can comply with so as to protect a budding industry of their own. This article will explore, from parallels in maritime law and civil aviation law, and drawing from existing domestic examples of regulation, what lessons may be learnt from such existing bodies of law and regulation that may provide some guidance for the future formulation of regulations for on range safety, flight safety or accident investigation relating to commercial passenger spaceflight.

Subject anxiety and psychological considerations for centrifuge-simulated suborbital spaceflight.

Anxiety and psychological concerns may pose a challenge to future commercial spaceflight. To help identify potential measures of anxiousness and indicators of flight-related stress, the psychiatric histories and anxiousness responses of volunteers exposed to G forces in centrifuge-simulated spaceflight acceleration profiles were examined. Over 2 d, 86 individuals (63 men, 23 women), 20-78 yr old, underwent up to 7 centrifuge runs. Day 1 consisted of two +G(z) runs (peak = +3.5 G(z)) and two +Gx runs (peak = +6.0 G(x)). Day 2 consisted of three runs approximating suborbital spaceflight profiles (combined +G(x) and +G(z)). Hemodynamic data were collected during the profiles. Subjects completed a retrospective self-report anxiety questionnaire. Medical monitors identified individuals exhibiting varying degrees of anxiousness during centrifuge exposure, medical histories of psychiatric disease, and other potential indicators of psychological intolerance of spaceflight. The retrospective survey identified 18 individuals self-reporting anxiousness, commonly related to unfamiliarity with centrifuge acceleration and concerns regarding medical history. There were 12 individuals (5 men, 7 women, average age 46.2 yr) who were observed to have anxiety that interfered with their ability to complete training; of these, 4 reported anxiousness on their questionnaire and 9 ultimately completed the centrifuge profiles. Psychiatric history was not significantly associated with anxious symptoms. Anxiety is likely to be a relevant and potentially disabling problem for commercial spaceflight participants; however, positive psychiatric history and self-reported symptoms did not predict anxiety during centrifuge performance. Symptoms of anxiousness can often be ameliorated through training and coaching. Even highly anxious individuals are likely capable of tolerating commercial spaceflight.

Astronaut medical selection during the shuttle era: 1981-2011.

U.S. astronauts undergo extensive job-related screening and medical examinations prior to selection in order to identify candidates optimally suited for careers in spaceflight. Screening medical standards evolved over many years and after extensive spaceflight experience. These standards assess health-related risks for each astronaut candidate, minimizing the potential for medical impact on future mission success. This document discusses the evolution of the Shuttle-era medical selection standards and the most common reasons for medical dis-qualification of applicants. Data for astronaut candidate finalists were compiled from medical records and NASA archives from the period of 1978 to 2004 and were retrospectively reviewed for medically disqualifying conditions. During Shuttle selection cycles, a total of 372 applicants were disqualified due to 425 medical concerns. The most common disqualifying conditions included visual, cardiovascular, psychiatric, and behavioral disorders. During this time period, three major expert panel reviews resulted in refinements and alterations to selection standards for future cycles. Shuttle-era screening, testing, and specialist evaluations evolved through periodic expert reviews, evidence-based medicine, and astronaut medical care experience. The Shuttle medical program contributed to the development and implementation of NASA and international standards, longitudinal data collection, improved medical care, and occupational surveillance models. The lessons learned from the Shuttle program serve as the basis for medical selection for the ISS, exploration-class missions, and for those expected to participate in commercial spaceflight.

Tolerance of centrifuge-simulated suborbital spaceflight by medical condition.

We examined responses of volunteers with known medical disease to G forces in a centrifuge to evaluate how potential commercial spaceflight participants (SFPs) might tolerate the forces of spaceflight despite significant medical history. Volunteers were recruited based upon suitability for each of five disease categories (hypertension, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, lung disease, back or neck problems) or a control group. Subjects underwent seven centrifuge runs over 2 d. Day 1 consisted of two +G(z) runs (peak = +3.5 G(z), Run 2) and two +G(x), runs (peak = +6.0 G(x), Run 4). Day 2 consisted of three runs approximating suborbital spaceflight profiles (combined +G(x) and +G(z), peak = +6.0 G(x)/+4.0 G(z)). Data collected included blood pressure, electrocardiogram, pulse oximetry, neurovestibular exams, and post-run questionnaires regarding motion sickness, disorientation, grayout, and other symptoms. A total of 335 subjects registered for participation, of which 86 (63 men, 23 women, age 20-78 yr) participated in centrifuge trials. The most common causes for disqualification were weight and severe and uncontrolled medical or psychiatric disease. Five subjects voluntarily withdrew from the second day of testing: three for anxiety reasons, one for back strain, and one for time constraints. Maximum hemodynamic values recorded included HR of 192 bpm, systolic BP of 217 mmHg, and diastolic BP of 144 mmHg. Common subjective complaints included grayout (69%), nausea (20%), and chest discomfort (6%). Despite their medical history, no subject experienced significant adverse physiological responses to centrifuge profiles. These results suggest that most individuals with well-controlled medical conditions can withstand acceleration forces of launch and re-entry profiles of current commercial spaceflight vehicles.

Models and Simulations: Risks and Lessons Learned

Organizations throughout the world are developing and operating space launch vehicles and systems for the purposes of furthering exploration, delivering services, and facilitating commercial human spaceflight. The operation of the launch vehicles and space systems creates the potential for harm to the crew, to flight participants, and to the uninvolved public. Therefore, it is imperative that comprehensive risk assessments be performed to characterize, evaluate, and reduce the risks of these endeavors. Analytical models and simulations are used in complex space systems to support decision making during development and operations. However, the risks associated with the use of models and simulations are often underestimated, and the hazards are often misunderstood. The failure to understand and address model and simulation risks can lead to poor decisions that may result in mishaps. This paper provides real-world examples and lessons learned to illustrate common concerns with the use of models and simulations.

R&D ekes out an increase in FY 2015 budget request

With spending caps in place, President Obama proposes an off-budget fund to support additional R&D. NASA would ground a flying observatory, and DOE would sharply curtail its nonproliferation programs.

Life-sciences research opportunities in commercial suborbital space flight

Commercial suborbital space flights will reach altitudes above 100km, with 3–5min of weightlessness bracketed by high-g launch and landing phases. The proposed frequency of these flights, and the large passenger population, present interesting opportunities for researchers in the life sciences. The characteristics of suborbital flight are between those of parabolic and orbital flights, opening up new scientific possibilities and easing the burden for obtaining access to 0g.There are several areas where these flights might be used for research in the life sciences: (1) operational research: preparation for “real” space flight, such as rehearsal of medical procedures, (2) applied research—to answer questions relevant to long-term space flight; (3) passenger health and safety—effects on passengers, relevant to screening and training; (4) basic research in physiological mechanisms—to address issues of fundamental science.We describe possible projects in each of these categories. One in particular spans several areas. Based on the anticipated suborbital flight profiles, observations from parabolic flight, and the wide range of fitness and experience levels of suborbital passengers, sensorimotor disturbances such as motion sickness and disorientation are major concerns. Protocols for pre-flight adaptation of sensorimotor responses might help to alleviate some of these problems, based on results from research in the initial flights. This would improve the passenger experience and add to the knowledge base relevant to space flight more generally.

Certification and safety aspects relating to the transport of passengers on high altitude balloons in Europe

High-altitude balloons typically fly between 25 and 50km in altitude, which, while below the Karman line of 100km, is yet far above the altitudes typically flown by aircraft. For example, the highest-flying commercial aircraft – the Concorde – had a maximum cruising altitude of only 18km. zero2infinity, a Spanish company, is currently developing a pressurized pod named “bloon” which will be capable of lifting six people, including two pilot crew members and four paying passengers, to an altitude of 36km through the use of high-altitude balloons. The boundary between Airspace and Outer Space has never been legally defined, mostly because of the lack of activities taking place between the altitude where airplanes fly and the lowest orbiting spacecraft. High-altitude balloons do fly at these in-between altitudes and the prospect of commercializing access to these parts of the stratosphere poses some questions in a new light. Given the relatively low altitude at which they fly, it may well be that these types of balloons would be considered to operate exclusively within air space. However, given the technology involved in crewed high altitude balloon flights, which is more similar to spacecraft engineering than to traditional hot-air or gas ballooning, it is necessary to evaluate the various legal regimes, codes, and regulations that would apply to such flights, especially regarding licenses and liabilities. For high altitude balloon flights commencing in Europe, the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) would very likely be the competent certification or licensing agency for these flights, although there would likely be input from various national aviation authorities as well. However, because the European Commission (EC) has not yet issued regulations regarding commercial spaceflight, particularly the use of high altitude balloons, new rules and regulations governing such flights may still need to be drafted and promulgated. With the development of suborbital passenger vehicles such as bloon, Spaceplane as well as SpaceShipTwo (which is British-owned) this is clearly the appropriate time for the EC or other competent institutions to issue regulations regarding suborbital passenger flight. Rules and regulations regarding suborbital passenger transport such as liability and waivers to protect third parties, governments, and operators, need to be addressed by the European Union (EU) as a whole or at least by national or regional governments wishing to attract suborbital passenger flights to their territory. After all, it would be in Europe׳s financial and other interests to create and foster a favorable legal and commercial environment for the aerospace business within the borders of the EU.

Retraction of Medically Fit for Commercial Spaceflight

New SpaceVol. 2, No. 1 RetractionRetraction of Medically Fit for Commercial SpaceflightThis article retracts the following:Medically Fit for Commercial SpaceflightPublished Online:20 Mar 2014https://doi.org/10.1089/space.2013.0020.retAboutSectionsView articleView Full TextPDF/EPUB Permissions & CitationsPermissionsDownload CitationsTrack CitationsAdd to favorites Back To Publication ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmail View article"Retraction of Medically Fit for Commercial Spaceflight." New Space, 2(1), p. 58FiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsRelated articlesMedically Fit for Commercial Spaceflight16 Dec 2013New Space Volume 2Issue 1Mar 2014 InformationCopyright 2014, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.To cite this article:Retraction of Medically Fit for Commercial Spaceflight.New Space.Mar 2014.58-58.http://doi.org/10.1089/space.2013.0020.retPublished in Volume: 2 Issue 1: March 20, 2014Online Ahead of Print:February 4, 2014PDF download

Countdown to Launch in Houston

This article presents an overview of the plan of the upcoming spaceport in Houston. The planned spaceport in Houston is designed to support vehicles that lift off and land horizontally, like conventional aircraft. Future expansion could see the construction of a passenger terminal. Instead of rockets, the plan is for the spaceport to be the take-off and landing spot for horizontally launched suborbital vehicles, such as Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo and XCOR’s Lynx. Horizontally launched vehicles have many advantages, according to Sirisha Bandla, assistant director of the Commercial Spaceflight Federation. The XCOR Lynx is a Concept X vehicle that can take off and land up to four times in one day. The industry wants to reduce that time to 12 to 18 months, including the six months it takes the Federal Aviation Administration to review an application.

Emerging Trends and Potential in Commercial Exploration of Outer Space: The Need for International Space Law Regulations

Space exploration remains one of the most fascinating fields in modern day science. This is because on one hand it involves very complex aspects of technology, but at the same time it remains an adventurous and attractive area of study. However, this area has undergone tremendous metamorphosis. During the cold war era, the 'space race' as it was then known was an amphitheater where the then two superpowers, the USA and former USSR flexed their muscles as to who had the most advanced technology and ideas. However, today there are new players such as China, Japan, India, Pakistan, France, Brazil, Australia, Israel, South Korea, Iran and even Nigeria. These nations are unleashing the latest space technology making the competition more stiff and polarized. However, the most radical change is that of that of the motive behind space exploration. In the past the main objective was science and technology. But today, the emerging trend is that of space ventures for commercial purposes. This is because both state and non state actors like business entities are exploiting the outer space for purposes of making profits. These activities revolve around space tourism/ commercial space flights, space mining and energy ventures, intellectual property rights and space military ventures. Many of these players are investing heavily with the aim of reaping from these ventures which are considered lucrative. An example is British Billionaire businessman Sir Richard Branson whose company Virgin Corporation is setting up a commercial space flight company in New Mexico, USA. Finally, there is intense research to establish whether planet Mars can support human life and whether in due course it may be considered as an alternative settlement for mankind’s growing population. This may open up the outer space for commercial appropriation by both state and non state actors.These factors have complicated the entire rules and practice of space exploration. This is because the current framework on international space law is outdated and vague. As it is, it only addresses state actors leaving out private entities. Secondly, this gap leaves room for legal dilemma that may jeopardize the entire prospects of space commerce. This omnibus paper is divided into four parts. The first part will address the current will address the current framework of international space law. Part two will deal with commercial space activities i.e. space tourism, space mining, Intellectual property rights and space mining and energy ventures. Part three shall address the comparative study of the United States of America and how their domestic laws regulate commercial space ventures. The final chapter shall deal with the recommendations and solution on how to deal with these challenges.

Gradient compression garments protect against orthostatic intolerance during recovery from bed rest

Abdomen-high, lower body graded compression garments (GCGs) may represent the next-generation of orthostatic intolerance protection with applications for exploration missions and commercial space flight. To evaluate the efficacy of the GCG to prevent orthostatic intolerance after a 14-day 6° head-down tilt bed rest (BR) and to determine whether wearing thigh-high compression garments impairs recovery from BR. Sixteen (12 M, 4 F) subjects participated in a 15-min 80° head-up tilt test 5 day before BR (BR-5), on the last morning of BR (BR+0), and on day 1 (BR+1) and 3 after BR (BR+3). No subjects wore the GCG on BR-5, and all subjects wore the GCG during testing on BR+0. Control subjects (n = 8) wore the GCG only through testing on BR+0. Treatment subjects (n = 8) wore the GCG on BR+0 and thigh-high garments on BR+1 and BR+2. No subjects were presyncopal during tilt on BR+0 while wearing the GCG. Despite lower plasma volume index (BR-5: 1.52 ± 0.06, BR+0: 1.32 ± 0.05 l/m(2)), the tilt-induced increase in heart rate (ΔHR, 17 ± 2 bpm) and decrease in stroke volume (ΔSV, -28 ± 3 ml) on BR+0 were less than on BR-5 (24 ± 2 bpm, -43 ± 4 ml). On BR+1 ΔHR in the control group (33 ± 4 bpm) was higher than in the treatment group (23 ± 2 bpm) but there were no group differences on BR+3. Wearing the GCG prevented the orthostatic intolerance that is normally present after BR. Thigh-high garments provided protection after BR, and wearing these garments did not impair recovery.