Commercial Poultry Farms Research Articles

A critical assessment of the cellular defences of the avian respiratory system: are birds in general and poultry in particular relatively more susceptible to pulmonary infections/afflictions?

In commercial poultry farming, respiratory diseases cause high morbidities and mortalities, begetting colossal economic losses. Without empirical evidence, early observations led to the supposition that birds in general, and poultry in particular, have weak innate and adaptive pulmonary defences and are therefore highly susceptible to injury by pathogens. Recent findings have, however, shown that birds possess notably efficient pulmonary defences that include: (i) a structurally complex three-tiered airway arrangement with aerodynamically intricate air-flow dynamics that provide efficient filtration of inhaled air; (ii) a specialised airway mucosal lining that comprises air-filtering (ciliated) cells and various resident phagocytic cells such as surface and tissue macrophages, dendritic cells and lymphocytes; (iii) an exceptionally efficient mucociliary escalator system that efficiently removes trapped foreign agents; (iv) phagocytotic atrial and infundibular epithelial cells; (v) phagocytically competent surface macrophages that destroy pathogens and injurious particulates; (vi) pulmonary intravascular macrophages that protect the lung from the vascular side; and (vii) proficiently phagocytic pulmonary extravasated erythrocytes. Additionally, the avian respiratory system rapidly translocates phagocytic cells onto the respiratory surface, ostensibly from the subepithelial space and the circulatory system: the mobilised cells complement the surface macrophages in destroying foreign agents. Further studies are needed to determine whether the posited weak defence of the avian respiratory system is a global avian feature or is exclusive to poultry. This review argues that any inadequacies of pulmonary defences in poultry may have derived from exacting genetic manipulation(s) for traits such as rapid weight gain from efficient conversion of food into meat and eggs and the harsh environmental conditions and severe husbandry operations in modern poultry farming. To reduce pulmonary diseases and their severity, greater effort must be directed at establishment of optimal poultry housing conditions and use of more humane husbandry practices.

Isolation, Identification and Characterization of Poultry Associated Bacterial Pathogens

In order to meet consumer demand, the global poultry business is constantly expanding; hence it is crucial to ensure the bio-safety of the poultry farms. In poultry farms, the main sources of bacterial development, increased antibiotic resistance, and environmental dispersion may be poultry feed, litter, and water. The focus of this research is on the identification and characterization of bacterial pathogens found in commercial poultry farms, drinking water samples, feed samples, and litter samples. The 100 samples were gathered from chicken farms in different districts of Tamil Nadu and transported to the lab for additional examination. Serial dilution was used to analyse the samples, which were then examined for colony morphology, microscopic features, and the biochemical traits of the bacteria Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas spp., Proteus spp., Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Bacillus spp., staphylococcus spp., and Streptococcus spp. The disc diffusion method was used to evaluate bacterial isolates against various antibiotic drugs. The results of this research indicate that the main sources of bacterial infections are chicken feed, drinking water samples and poultry litter. Salmonella, Pseudomonas, and E. coli prevalence rates were 94%, 80%, and 75%, respectively. Chloramphenicol and Tetracycline both had overall antibiotic resistance rates of 65.65% and 59.23%, respectively. Public health is alarmingly threatened by the presence of these harmful microorganisms in poultry habitats. To reduce the chance of transmitting the bacterial diseases linked to poultry, strict hygiene procedures must be put in place. The use of antibiotics in chicken for promoting growth and illness prevention needs to be properly regulated and executed.

Thermal Comfort, Growth Performance and Welfare of Olive Pulp Fed Broilers during Hot Season

This study evaluated the nutritional effect of dried olive pulp (OP), on broilers’ thermal comfort, growth parameters and welfare in a commercial poultry farm during the hot season. A number of 108 Cobb male broilers, 19 d olds were allocated into three dietary groups: controls (CON), OP3 and OP6, based on the level of OP added to their diet (0%, 3% and 6%). The thermal comfort of broilers was assessed using the temperature–humidity index (THI). Broilers’ body temperature (BT) was determined weekly. OP beneficially affected the growth performance of broilers undergoing very severe heat stress, as indicated by the increased body weight gain (BWG) recorded in OP groups compared to CON during the first week of the experiment and the higher body weight (BW) of OP fed chickens at 26 d of age (p < 0.05). At 26 d of age, OP6 broilers had lower BT (40.55 ± 0.06 °C) than CON (40.78 ± 0.09 °C) (p < 0.05). A positive dietary effect of OP in welfare parameters like feather cleanliness and panting behaviour of chickens fed 6% OP was also recorded. Using OP as feedstuff is a promising feeding strategy for alleviating the adverse effects of heat stress; it also offers the potential to recycle olive by-products, leading to an efficient waste-based circular economy.

Assessment of Biosecurity Practices and Its Status in Small- and Medium-Scale Commercial Poultry Farms in Arsi and East Showa Zones, Oromia, Ethiopia

Disease prevalence and seasonal outbreaks are challenging the poultry industry in Ethiopia. Proper and sustainable implementation of biosecurity practices is important to reverse such problems. This study was conducted in commercial poultry farms in two zones of Ethiopia to investigate farm characteristics, implementation of biosecurity practices, and biosecurity status (BS) using a structured questionnaire. The variables were grouped into three biosecurity factors, including conceptual, structural, and operational biosecurity, based on their homogeneity. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to summarize the results. Most commercial farms were owned by males (69.7%). The majority of the farms (40.3%) were located at a distance <50 m from residential areas. Farm owners do not provide biosecurity training to their employees (68.8%), which results in poor biosecurity implementation. The mean conceptual, structural, and operational BS were 50.4 ± 11.62, 63.27 ± 10.51, and 44.69 ± 13.04, respectively, indicating operational biosecurity measurements were less implemented. Overall, the BS indicated that 40.7% of the farms have BS < 50% questing for interventions. Farm characteristics and biosecurity measurements were positively associated with BS, which shows substantial room for improvement. Owners’ education, occupation, experience, farm flock size, and training were significantly associated with BS (p < 0.05). A disease prevention strategy through biosecurity improvement is an economical means for controlling poultry disease prevalence.

The Evolution of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A (H5) in Poultry in Nigeria, 2021-2022.

In 2021, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic and global food insecurity, the Nigerian poultry sector was exposed to the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus and its economic challenges. Between 2021 and 2022, HPAI caused 467 outbreaks reported in 31 of the 37 administrative regions in Nigeria. In this study, we characterized the genomes of 97 influenza A viruses of the subtypes H5N1, H5N2, and H5N8, which were identified in different agro-ecological zones and farms during the 2021-2022 epidemic. The phylogenetic analysis of the HA genes showed a widespread distribution of the H5Nx clade 2.3.4.4b and similarity with the HPAI H5Nx viruses that have been detected in Europe since late 2020. The topology of the phylogenetic trees indicated the occurrence of several independent introductions of the virus into the country, followed by a regional evolution of the virus that was most probably linked to its persistent circulation in West African territories. Additional evidence of the evolutionary potential of the HPAI viruses circulating in this region is the identification in this study of a putative H5N1/H9N2 reassortant virus in a mixed-species commercial poultry farm. Our data confirm Nigeria as a crucial hotspot for HPAI virus introduction from the Eurasian territories and reveal a dynamic pattern of avian influenza virus evolution within the Nigerian poultry population.

Risk for Infection in Humans after Exposure to Birds Infected with Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Virus, United States, 2022.

During February 7─September 3, 2022, a total of 39 states experienced outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus in birds from commercial poultry farms and backyard flocks. Among persons exposed to infected birds, highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5) viral RNA was detected in 1 respiratory specimen from 1 person.

Characterization of multidrug and heavy metal resistance of carbapenemases producing Klebsiella pneumoniae from poultry samples in Bangladesh.

Resistance to multiple drugs in Klebsiella pneumoniae (KPN) is an important issue in human and animal medicine. KPN phenotypic and genotypic aspects in poultry samples have not been comprehensively explored in Bangladesh. This research focused on the prevalence of antibiotic resistance and the characterization of KPN in Bangladeshi poultry isolates using both phenotypic and genotypic approaches. A total of 32 poultry samples were randomly obtained from a commercial poultry farm in Narsingdi, Bangladesh, and 43.90% (18/41) of the isolates were confirmed to be KPN, whereas all isolates were biofilm producers. The antibiotic sensitivity test revealed the most remarkable (100%) antibiotic resistance level against Ampicillin, Doxycycline and Tetracycline while remaining susceptible to Doripenem, Meropenem, Cefoxitin and Polymyxin B. Resistance to Nalidixic acid, Nitrofurantoin, Trimethoprim, Levofloxacin, Ciprofloxacin, Cefuroxime and Chloramphenicol ranges from 18% to 70%. Minimum inhibitory concentrations for carbapenem-resistant KPN ranged from 128 to 512mg/mL for Meropenem, Imipenem, Gentamycin and Ciprofloxacin, respectively. [Correction added on 15 June 2023, after first online publication: 512 g/mL was corrected to 512 mg/mL in the preceding sentence]. Carbapenemase-producing KPN isolates harboured a single or multiple β-lactamase genes, blaSIM-1 , blaIMP-4 and blaOXA-48 as well as one ESBL gene (blaTEM ) and plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance gene (qnrB). Furthermore, Cr and Co outperformed Cu and Zn in antibacterial effectiveness. The results of this investigation showed that the high prevalence of multidrug-resistant pathogenic KPN in our chosen geographic location had displayed sensitivity to FOX/PB/Cr/Co, which might be regarded as an alternate treatment to reduce pressure of use on carbapenems.

Development of a new immunodiagnostic tool for poultry coccidiosis using an antigen-capture sandwich assay based on monoclonal antibodies detecting an immunodominant antigen of Eimeria

This study was conducted to develop an antigen-capture ELISA that detects an immunodominant antigen of Eimeria, 3-1E which is present in all Eimeria species, using a set of 3-1E-specific mouse monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Highly sensitive 3-1E-specific antigen-capture ELISA was established using compatible mAb pairs (#318 and #320) selected from 6 mAbs (#312, #317, #318, #319, #320, and #323) with high binding activity against recombinant 3-1E protein. These anti-3-1E mAbs specifically recognized E. tenella sporozoites and a higher level of 3-1E was detected in the lysate of sporozoites than in sporocysts. Immunofluorescence assay (IFA) using 2 mAbs (#318 and #320) showed specific staining around the membrane of E. tenella sporozoites. In order to measure the changes in the 3-1E level during in coccidiosis, serum, feces, jejunal, and cecal contents were individually collected daily for 7-days postinfection (dpi) with E. maxima and E. tenella. The new ELISA was sensitive and specific for 3-1E detection in all samples collected daily from E. maxima- and E. tenella-infected chickens for a week, and the detection sensitivity ranges were 2 to 5 ng/mL and 1 to 5 ng/mL in serum, 4 to 25 ng/mL and 4 to 30 ng/mL in feces, 1 to 3 ng/mL and 1 to 10 ng/mL in cecal contents, and 3 to 65 ng/mL and 4 to 22 ng/mL in jejunal contents. Following coccidiosis, the overall 3-1E levels started to increase from 4 dpi, and the highest production was shown on 5 dpi. Among the samples collected from Eimeria-infected chickens, the highest detection level was found in the jejunal contents of E. maxima-infected chickens. Furthermore, the level of IFN-γ in serum was significantly (P < 0.05) increased from 3 dpi and peaked on 5 dpi post E. maxima infection. Post E. tenella infection, the level of IFN-γ in serum gradually (P < 0.05) increased from 2 to 5 dpi and plateaued at 7 dpi. The level of TNF-α in serum was rapidly (P < 0.05) increased from 4 dpi and those levels were kept until 7 dpi post both Eimeria infections (E. maxima and E. tenella). More importantly, the daily changes in the 3-1E levels in different samples from E. maxima- and E. tenella-infected chickens were effectively monitored with this new antigen-capture ELISA. Therefore, this new immunoassay is a sensitive diagnostic tool to monitor coccidiosis in a large field population in the commercial poultry farms before clinical symptoms develop using serum, feces, and gut samples during the entire period of infection cycle starting from 1 d after infection.

Detection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Isolation, and Determination of Tylosin Susceptibility of Isolates from Commercial Chickens.

Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) is a contagious avian pathogen that causes financial losses to the poultry industry. Isolation of the pathogen is difficult and time-consuming, and therefore, far from a routine method. Serological testing methods to detect antibodies resistant to MG are widely used in routine diagnosis. Tylosin is a class of macrolide antibiotics tremendously administered in veterinary medicine for the treatment of mycoplasmosis and prophylaxis. This study aimed to detect MG by immunoassay testing, culture, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in commercial poultry farms and to investigate the tylosin susceptibility of the isolates. To verify the presence of antibodies resistant to MG, 750 blood samples were randomly collected from 38 broiler farms from 2019 to 2022 in Mazandaran and Golestan provinces, Iran, and rapid slide agglutination (RSA) assay was performed. Positive results were analyzed by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for further investigation. Here, 920 swab samples were collected from 38 non-vaccinated commercial farms for culture, and PCR tests were performed for the isolated strains. The activities of tylosin were tested in vitro against these isolates using the broth microdilution method. The lowest antibiotic concentration that resulted in a color change was considered the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value. Twenty-four (63.1%) farms were positive in the RSA test, and 21 (55.2%) farms were positive in the ELISA test. Nine (23.68%) of the farms grew on culture media, and 8 (21.05%) were detected as Gallisepticum species by PCR. The geometric mean of MIC for tylosin was 5.75 µg/ml, MIC50 was 4 µg/ml, and MIC90 was 8 µg/ml. The results indicated that commercial farms were infected with MG. Considering the ability of MG to spread and the probable use of the RSA test as a rapid and cheap method, it can be argued that ELISA and RSA serological tests can be used to find MG in poultry flocks, and the positive result should be confirmed by standard microbiological tests or PCR. It was also found that the isolated parts of MG changed their sensitivity to tylosin, indicating the need for routine testing to optimize treatment dose and efficiency.

Characterization and pathogenicity of multidrug-resistant coagulase-negative Staphylococci isolates in chickens

The pathogenic potential of vancomycin and methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative Staphylococci (VMRCoNS) on Egyptian poultry farms has received little attention. Therefore, this study aims to study the prevalence of CoNS in imported poultry flocks and commercial poultry farms, evaluate the presence of virulence and antibiotic resistance genes (sea, seb, sec, sed, see, and mecA), and assess their pathogenicity in broiler chicks. Seven species were identified among 25 isolates, such as 8 S. gallinarum, 5 S. saprophyticus, 5 S. chromogens, 3 S. warneri, 2 S. hominis, 1 S. caprae, and 1 S. epidermidis. All isolates were resistant to clindamycin, doxycycline, vancomycin, methicillin, rifampicin, and penicillin. The mecA gene was confirmed in 14 isolates, while the sed gene was revealed in seven isolates. Commercial 1-day-old Ross broiler chicks were divided into eight groups of three replicates (10 birds/group): group Ӏ was negative control; groups (П, Ш, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII) were subcutaneously inoculated with 108 CFUml−1 of S. hominis, S. caprae, S. epidermidis, S. gallinarum, S. chromogens, S. warneri, and S. saprophyticus, respectively. Groups VIII and V had mortality rates of 100% and 20%, respectively, with no evidence of mortalities in the other groups. The highest re-isolation of CoNS species was recorded in groups VII, VIII, and V. Postmortem and histopathological examination revealed the common presence of polyserositis in the internal organs, and hepatic and myocardial necrosis in groups IV, V, and VI. These findings revealed the pathogenic potential of CoNS, so special attention must be directed toward their public health impact.

Determination of antimicrobial use in commercial poultry farms in Plateau and Oyo States, Nigeria

BackgroundIndiscriminate use of antimicrobials for the prevention and treatment of bacterial infection in animals is a common practice in Nigeria as in other developing countries. These antimicrobials are purchased over the counter without restrictions and often administered in form of medicated feedstuffs. In Nigeria, like most developing countries, antimicrobial prescription data are not routinely collected or reported at the farm level, instead import data are used in reporting antimicrobial consumption. Farmers can be useful sources of data on the use of antimicrobial agents by class, animal species, production type and age. The objective of the study was to determine the knowledge, attitude and practices of poultry farmers on antimicrobial resistance and to generate data on antimicrobial use (AMU) in poultry farms in Plateau and Oyo states in accordance with the guidelines of the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH).MethodsA questionnaire used by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations in Ghana was adopted and modified to collect data on the knowledge, attitude and practices of farmers on AMR and AMU and to collect AMU data from selected poultry farms. A focus group discussion (FGD) was conducted in Plateau state with poultry farmers and representatives from the state veterinary services, using a checklist. The aim of the FGD was to have an idea on antimicrobial use among poultry farmers and to generate additional questions that might be added to the questionnaire. Stratified random sampling technique was used to select 50 farms from Plateau and Oyo states, using the list of registered poultry farms in the two states as sampling frame.ResultsNinety eight percent (98%) of farmers gave antibiotics as prophylactic treatment to day old chicks. There were 47 different products used in the two states within the study period. We observed that five classes of antibiotics (Tetracyclines, Penicillins, Aminoglycosides, Polypeptides and Fluoroquinolone) were used in the two states. A total of 351 kg of active ingredients from seven different classes, namely: tetracyclines, penicillins, aminoglycosides, polypeptide, fluoroquinolones, amphenicol and macrolides were recorded from the two states. Some products contained cocktail of antibiotics, having up to six different classes with very high concentration of active ingredients which are not in the list of registered antimicrobials reported to WOAH.ConclusionThe concept used for this survey proved that the approach can be applied for AMU surveillance in the animal health sector. It also provided insight on farmers’ knowledge and practices with regards to the use of antimicrobials which is missing in the national import data. The need for “stronger” antibiotics was identified as one of the drivers of antibiotic resistance.

Assessment of the Nutritional Quality and Fungal Contamination of Commercial Poultry Feed and Raw Materials Available in Gazipur and Mymensingh District of Bangladesh

The study was conducted to evaluate the nutrient content and fungal contamination of commercial poultry feeds and raw materials available in Gazipur and Mymensingh districts of Bangladesh. A total of 67 commercial poultry feed (broiler and layer) and raw materials were collected from different poultry farms, dealers and shops. They feed samples and raw materials were then analyzed in terms of DM (Dry matter), CP (crude protein), EE (ether extract), ash and calcium concentration. Crude protein is the main constituent and is found in the range of 20-22.5% and 15.3-19.5% for broiler and layer feeds, respectively. Moisture content ranged between 9.7-11.2% in both broiler and layer feed indicating good storage condition. Other nutrients such as crude fat and crude fiber content in broiler and layer feed were 3.6-6.9% and 3.0-5.8%, respectively. Layer feed contains a higher amount of calcium (3.1-4.6%) and total ash (8.3-13.3%) than the broiler feed. The moisture percentage of raw materials was below the recommended value. About 40-60% crude protein was found in protein-rich feed ingredients and other nutrients such as crude fat (17.2-19.1%) and crude fiber (9.9-13.1%) were higher in energy-rich ingredients. On the other hand, fungal contamination in broiler and layer feed, and raw materials was found in about 28.5%, 30.0% and 46.0%, respectively. The proximate composition and fungal contamination of poultry feed and raw materials were varied due to environment, processing method, storage condition and adulteration, etc. In conclusion, findings of the nutrient content and fungal contamination of commercial poultry feed and raw materials will help the feed mill owners and commercial poultry farmers to prepare quality feed and to formulate quality poultry ration.

Antibiotics Profile and Public Health Implication of Pathogenic Enteric Bacteria Associated With Poultry Stool

Poultry waste are not properly disposed and most rural farmers make use of it as manure therefore poultry wastes may serve as source of enteric organism capable of infecting humans. The antibiotic resistance from these bacteria can be transferred to natural microbial community as a result of involvement of antibiotics in poultry farming. This research was carried out to assess the multidrug resistant pattern of enteric bacteria in poultry stool dropping. samples of poultry droppings were obtained from a free-range commercial poultry farm in Otuoke, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Samples were cultured on selective and differential media. 16 isolates of enteric bacteria were obtained from poultry stool droppings. The isolates identified were of four genera. Salmonella species which is predominant 6(37%) followed by Escerichia coli 5(31%) Proteus species 3(19%) and Kiebsiella species 2(13%). Antibiotic susceptibility testing was carried out using the disk diffusion technique. Gram negative antibiotics including crioxacin cefprozil, nitrofuration, ceftazidime co-trimoxazole, genetamicin, cefuroximo. The resistant pattern in among the gram negative pathogens revealed that more than 98% were resistant to nitrofuratioin cefprozil, gentamicin and augumentin while 12.89% resistant to certazidime, 90.10% resistant to augmentin, 15.32% cefuroxime, 12.30% co-trimoxazole, 38.17% resistant to gentamicin, 15.20% resistant to cefprozil and 50.20% resistant to ofloxacin, Multidrug resistance species were isolated from poultry stool dropping and some of the bacterial isolates are potentially pathogenic to humans and animals and therefore poses a serious threat to public health.

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices of Poultry Farmers Regarding the Control of Chicken Coccidiosis in Lagos State, Nigeria

Background: Coccidiosis, caused by coccidia of the genus Eimeria, accounts for significant production loss-es in the global poultry industry. This study evaluated commercial poultry farmers’ knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAPs) on chicken coccidiosis and its control in Lagos State, Nigeria. Methods: Semi-structured questionnaires assessing KAPs relating to chicken coccidiosis and its control were administered to 157 poultry farmers. Summary statistics were performed on the collated data using the Statis-tical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The relationship between respondents’ knowledge and demographic features was analysed using the Chi-square test of independence on SPSS. Results were consid-ered significant at p &lt; 0.05. Results: The majority of the respondents were males (91, 58%), married (108, 68.7%), and between 31 and 50 years old (106, 67.5%). Most have had tertiary education (84, 53.5%) and farming experience between 1 and 5 years (97, 61.8%). All the respondents have heard about coccidiosis previously, and of these, 57 (36.3%), 45 (28.7%), and 37 (23.6%) sourced this information from veterinarians, fellow farmers, and during training/workshops, respectively. Ingestion of faecally contaminated feed and water by chickens was opined as the cause of coccidiosis by 48 (30.6%) respondents, followed by bacteria (30, 19.1%) and poor hygiene and sanitation (27, 17.2%). Most mentioned that ingesting faecally contaminated feed and water (126, 80.2%) is the mode of coccidiosis transmission, and 76 (48.4%) identified bloody and watery diarrhea as the major clinical sign. The gender of the farmers and their educational status were significantly associated with the level of coccidiosis knowledge. Of the study participants, 150 (95.5%) have experienced an outbreak of coccidiosis on their farms before, and the majority observed bloody diarrhea (90, 60.0%) as the major clinical sign. None of the farmers used ionophore drugs. Embazin-forte® (Sulphaquinoxaline) was the drug most reportedly used to prevent and treat coccidiosis. Few farmers (11, 7%) adopted anticoccidial vaccines for coccidiosis prevention using either Immucox®, Livacox®, or both. Conclusion: This study showed that poultry farmers in Lagos State have adequate knowledge of chicken coccidiosis. Chemical anticoccidials were the only drugs used for prevention and treatment, and vaccines were not adopted. There is a need for veterinarians and poultry extension workers to enlighten farmers in the study area about the proper, safe, and effective use of anticoccidial drugs and vaccines.

Collagen adhesin protein and necrotic enteritis B-like toxin as biomarkers for early diagnosis of necrotic enteritis in commercial broiler chickens

Mouse monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) reactive with Clostridium perfringens collagen adhesin protein (CNA) and necrotic enteritis B-like toxin (NetB) were developed. The best capture/detection mAb pairs for CNA and NetB were selected based on their affinity and specificity to develop sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) to detect CNA and NetB proteins, respectively, in jejunal digesta samples from commercial broiler farms in the United States. Prior to the analysis of samples from commercial broiler flocks, the specificity and sensitivity of the CNA and NetB ELISAs were validated using sera, jejunal digesta, and fecal samples from chickens coinfected with Eimeria maxima and CNA+/NetB+C. perfringens in an animal model of necrotic enteritis (NE). Subsequently, a total of 251 field samples were collected from 74 commercial poultry farms. Among these, 18 samples were from 6 broiler farms that used certified organics (CO), and 155 samples were from 42 farms with nonantibiotics (NA). In jejunal digesta samples, CNA levels ranged from 0.02 to 0.59 ng/mL and NetB levels ranged from 0.09 to 1.91 ng/mL. CNA and NetB levels showed a positive correlation with each other (Pearson correlation coefficient r=0.772, P < 0.001). CNA and NetB levels in jejunal digesta were significantly decreased in CO farms compared with those from NA farms (P < 0.001). In conclusion, these new C. perfringens antigen-specific sandwich ELISAs offer a sensitive and specific means to detect C. perfringens CNA and NetB proteins as biomarkers of early NE occurrence in field samples from commercial broiler chickens.

Newcastle disease burden in Nepal and efficacy of Tablet I2 vaccine in commercial and backyard poultry production.

Poultry (Gallus domesticus) farming plays an important role as an income generating enterprise in a developing country like Nepal, contributing more than 4% to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Newcastle Disease (ND) is a major poultry disease affecting both commercial and backyard poultry production worldwide. There were more than 90 reported ND outbreaks in Nepal in 2018 with over 74,986 birds being affected. ND is responsible for over 7% of total poultry mortality in the country. Recent outbreaks of ND in 2021 affected many farms throughout Nepal and caused massive loss in poultry production. ND is caused by a single-stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) virus that presents very similar clinical symptoms as Influenza A (commonly known as bird flu) adding much complexity to clinical disease identification and intervention. We conducted a nationwide ND and Influenza A (IA) prevalence study, collecting samples from representative commercial and backyard poultry farms from across the major poultry production hubs of Nepal. We used both serological and molecular assessments to determine disease exposure history and identification of strains of ND Virus (NDV). Of the 40 commercial farms tested, both NDV (n = 28, 70%) and IAV (n = 11, 27.5%) antibodies were detected in majority of the samples. In the backyard farms (n = 36), sero-prevalence of NDV and IAV were 17.5% (n = 7) and 7.5% (n = 3) respectively. Genotype II NDV was present in most of the commercial farms, which was likely due to live vaccine usage. We detected never reported Genotype I NDV in two backyard farm samples. Our investigation into 2021 ND outbreak implicated Genotype VII.2 NDV strain as the causative pathogen. Additionally, we developed a Tablet formulation of the thermostable I2-NDV vaccine (Ranigoldunga™) and assessed its efficacy on various (mixed) breeds of chicken (Gallus domesticus). Ranigoldunga™ demonstrated an overall efficacy >85% with a stability of 30 days at room temperature (25°C). The intraocularly administered vaccine was highly effective in preventing ND, including Genotype VII.2 NDV strain.

Assessment and identification of risk factors associated with avian coccidiosis in Haryana, India

Coccidiosis caused by protozoan parasite of Eimeria species is one of the most important poultry diseases prevalent in different parts of globe including India. The parasite invades the intestinal cells and the disease is characterised by enteritis and diarrhoea leading to weight loss, altered feed conversion ratio, poor growth and eventually death of affected birds. A survey on commercial poultry farms was conducted in 10 districts of Haryana state, India, using a questionnaire to assess the status of coccidiosis, associated risk factors and management practices followed. On analysis of data, it was found that overall, 15 (28.8%) farms had history of coccidiosis. One-fourth (25%) of the farmers reported the use of anticoccidial drugs for chemoprophylaxis or therapeutic purposes at their farms. Further, on statistical analysis using Chi-square, several factors were found to be statistically significant (p&lt;0.05) with occurrence of coccidiosis at these farms including type of birds, capacity of birds, visitor’s entry, litter removal frequency, number of antibiotics used for treatment and foggers use in summer at farms under study. These factors were identified as predisposing and/ or risk factors associated with occurrence of coccidiosis at the farms. The odds of occurrence of coccidiosis were significantly higher (p&lt;0.001) at the farms with presence of risk factors identified in the study as compared to the farms where risk factors were absent. The present study revealed history of coccidiosis at several poultry farms leading to undue economic burden to farmers. For effective management of coccidiosis at the farms, the use of foggers may be discouraged. Moreover, litter may be turned or removed frequently along with judicious use of anti-coccidiostats or other alternatives may be encouraged.

Poultry farmers' knowledge, attitude, and practices toward poultry waste management in Bangladesh.

The improper handling of poultry litter and waste poses risks to humans and environment by introducing certain compounds, elements, and pathogenic microorganisms into the surrounding environment and food chain. However, understanding the farmers' knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) could provide insights into the constraints that hinder the appropriate adoption of waste management. Therefore, this study aimed to assess poultry farmers' KAP regarding waste management issues. A cross-sectional KAP study was conducted with native poultry keepers and small-scale commercial poultry farmers in seven districts of Bangladesh. In the survey, 385 poultry producers were interviewed using validated structured questionnaires through face-to-face interviews to collect the quantitative data in their domiciles. The overall KAP of farmers regarding poultry waste management issues demonstrated a low level of KAP (p = 0.001). The analysis shows that roughly 5% of farmers have a high level of knowledge of poultry waste management issues, followed by around one-third of respondents having a moderate level of knowledge. Considering the attitude domain, more than one-fifth of native poultry keepers and nearly two-thirds of commercial producers demonstrated a low level of attitude toward poultry waste management. Considering the overall analysis, roughly half of the respondents found a high level of attitude, and over half of the farmers showed a moderate level of attitude toward poultry waste management issues. The analysis showed that the level of good practices for native and commercial poultry production systems is estimated at 77.3% versus 45.9%, respectively, despite the farmers' lesser knowledge and attitudes toward poultry waste management systems. Overall, analysis showed that nearly 60% and 40% of poultry producers had high and moderate levels, respectively, of good practices in poultry waste management issues. Analysis of the KAP data shows that farmers had a low level of KAP toward poultry waste management. The result of this study will assist in formulating appropriate strategies and to adopt poultry waste management solutions by poultry farmers to reduce environmental degradation.

Animal Model Studies, Antibiotic Resistance and Toxin Gene Profile of NE Reproducing Clostridium perfringens Type A and Type G Strains Isolated from Commercial Poultry Farms in China

Poultry necrotic enteritis (NE) is a complex and multifactorial disease caused by Clostridium perfringens types. Earlier, the disease was prevented and/or controlled through the addition of in-feed antibiotics and antimicrobial growth promoters (AGPs). The ban on the use of these agents as feed additives has been a major reason for re-emergence of this disease leading to huge economic losses to the world poultry industry. Understanding the pathogenesis of NE by developing an effective experimental model remains challenging and lacks consistency owing to the involvement of several critical factors involved in causing lesions of disease in the field. In this study, locally characterized C. perfringens types, i.e., ACP (toxinotype A), and GCP (toxinotype G), obtained from NE outbreaks on commercial farms in China (2020-2022), were used to experimentally induce NE in Specific-Pathogen-Free (SPF) chicks. The lesion scores observed on day 20 were 1.9 ± 1.10 (GCP strain) and 1.5 ± 1.08 (ACP strain), and both had significant difference as compared to the control group. The inclusion of fishmeal in addition to oral clostridial dose, i.e., fishmeal (day 7 onward) + Clostridia (7.5 × 108 cfu/mL consecutively for 04 days) induced a lesion score of 2.0 ± 1.15 in respective groups. Use of coccidia (Eimeria necatrix) on day 9 followed by clostridia challenge enhanced the lesion scores to 2.5 ± 1.08 and 2.2 ± 1.23 for type G and type A strains, respectively. When both predisposing factors (coccidia + fish meal) were given together, i.e., fishmeal (day 7 onward) and coccidia (day 9) along with clostridia, the lesion scores were 3.2 ± 1.22 (GCP + coccidia + fish meal) and 3.0 ± 1.15 (ACP + coccidia + fish meal). These results were significantly different from group 1 (ACP) and 2 (GCP), in which only C. perfringens was used to induce NE. The clinical signs as well as histopathological lesions in experimentally induced groups were found similar as reported in the literature. The two type G strains identified in this study were also used for susceptibility testing against various drugs. Both strains were found to be resistant to amikacin, doxycycline, metronidazole, neomycin, nystatin, polymyxin B, streptomycin, and tetracycline. Variable susceptibility was seen against ceftriaxone, florfenicol, gentamicin, and kanamycin drugs. Amoxicillin, ampicillin, cefotaxime, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, ofloxacin, and penicillin were effective drugs based upon their low level of resistance and therefore they might be preferred over other antimicrobial agents for proper treatment/prophylaxis of NE infections. Further studies are needed to study the pathogenesis of NE in detail in experimentally induced models along with continuous monitoring of the resistance pattern of C. perfringens strains in the field.

Prevalence and stakeholders’ perception of mycotoxins in the Ghanaian poultry feed value chain

The poultry sector in Ghana has the potential to contribute significantly to domestic food and nutrition security. There is limited information regarding the knowledge of feed industry stakeholders on the presence of mycotoxins in poultry feed. This work was aimed at assessing the prevalence of aflatoxin and fumonisin in poultry feed, and mycotoxins awareness among stakeholders of the poultry feed value chain in Ghana. Three hundred and fifty (350) respondents consisting of 255 commercial poultry farmers, 85 feed processors and 16 feed vendors were involved in the study. AgraStrip® Quantitative test from RomerLab, USA was used to quantify total fumonisin and aflatoxin levels in the prepared feed samples. The study revealed that commercial feed producers, feed mills operators and on-farm feed processors are the three main sources of feed and ingredients for commercial poultry farmers in Ghana. The study identified a high level of mycotoxin contamination of feed and ingredients. Feed samples from the commercial feed processors recorded significantly lower aflatoxin levels (21.63+7.05 ppb, p&lt;0.008). However, the threshold of 15 ppb for the Ghana Standards Authority, FAO/WHO maximum permissible limit of 30 ppb and EU regulatory limit of 20 ppb for poultry feeds were exceeded by 70% of all the samples. Fumonisin levels were less than the 30mg/kg FDA guidance levels for maize and maize by-products intended for consumption by breeding poultry. From the study, a majority of the farmers (85%), vendors (87.5%) and all of the feed processors have their own feed storage facilities or warehouses. Storage problems identified by these stakeholders included pest infestation and mold development, which usually occur after a few weeks of storage to the end of the storage period. Sanitation was poor along the feed chain, particularly during feed formulation and storage. Awareness of mycotoxins and their effect on animal and human health was low among the respondents. Some of those who have heard about aflatoxins were not aware of what it is and its effect on the health of humans and animals. This threatens the management of mycotoxins in the poultry feed chain. Key words: aflatoxin, fumonisin, mycotoxin contamination, mycotoxin awareness, sanitation, poultry feed, feed processors