Commercial Lithium-ion Batteries Research Articles

Aliphatic Polycarbonate-Based Binders for High-Loading Cathodes by Solvent-Free Method Used in High Performance LiFePO4|Li Batteries.

The binder ratio in a commercial lithium-ion battery is very low, but it is one of the key materials affecting the battery's performance. In this paper, polycarbonate-based polymers with liner or chain extension structures are proposed as binders. Then, dry LiFePO4 (LFP) electrodes with these binders are prepared using the solvent-free method. Polycarbonate-based polymers have a high tensile strength and a satisfactory bonding strength, and the rich polar carbonate groups provide highly ionic conductivity as binders. The batteries with poly (propylene carbonate)-plus (PPC-P) as binders were shown to have a long cycle life (350 cycles under 1 C, 89% of capacity retention). The preparation of dry electrodes using polycarbonate-based polymers can avoid the use of solvents and shorten the process of preparing electrodes. It can also greatly reduce the manufacturing cost of batteries and effectively use industrial waste gas dioxide oxidation. Most importantly, a battery material with this kind of polycarbonate polymer as a binder is easily recycled by simply heating after the battery is discarded. This paper provides a new idea for the industrialization and development of a novel binder.

Practical surface-reconstruction strategy based on self-reactive interface design enables ultralong cyclability of commercial cathodes for lithium-ion batteries

Although Al-doped high-voltage LiCoO2 (HVLCO) cathode has been widely used in commercial lithium-ion batteries, it still suffers from poor cycling stability due to its unstable surface/interface structure causing bad side reactions. Herein, a surface reconstruction strategy based on self-reactive interface design has been proposed, to construct a uniform and ultrathin (∼ 5 nm) LiAlO2 (LAO) layer on the surface of HVLCO cathodes. The construction of LAO layer is realized by a facile and scalable process involving chemical immersion in LiOH solution and subsequent heating treatment. Moreover, the LAO coating layer imparts both lower interior stress upon lithiation and lower migration energy barrier of Li ions, guaranteeing stable and rapid lithium storage, which is confirmed by substantial characterizations and theory calculations. Consequently, ultralong cycle life over 10,000 h (1000 cycles) at 0.1 C is achieved for the surface-reconstructed HVLCO cathode, with an 86% capacity retention. Especially, different kinds of commercial HVLCO products as well as NCM (LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2) cathode material, after the same surface reconstruction, also show remarkably reinforced electrochemical performance. This practical surface-reconstruction strategy may serve as a useful guideline for future design and performance optimization of commercial cathode materials.

High-performance lithium-ion full-cell batteries based on transition metal oxides: Towards energy density of ∼ 1300 Wh kg−1

Half-cell structure including sufficient lithium ions for theoretical studies exhibits different electrochemical performance with commercial full-cell rechargeable lithium ion batteries (LIBs) featuring moderate lithium ions. So, understanding the property correlation between half-cell and full-cell LIBs is imperative, but remains a big challenge. Herein, a series of full-cells are assembled with transition metal oxide (TMO) nanowires as cathodes and silicon/graphite (Si/G) anode via electrochemical pre-lithiation, to figure out the key determinants in comparison to their corresponding half-cells. It is found that eletrochemical performances of half-cell and full-cell batteries are basically consistent by using insertion-type cathodes of V2O5, MoO3 and MnO2, but different in the cases of conversion-type cathodes of Fe2O3 and Co3O4 due to their high polarization relieved crystal fragmentation. In addition, compared with the other five materials, V2O5 nanowire exhibits the lowest charge transfer resistance (240.2 Ω), highest lithium ion diffusion rate (10-13 ∼ 10-11 cm2 s−1) and discharge midpoint voltage (1.6 V). Thus, V2O5||PL-Si/G achieves the state-of-the-art gravimetric energy density, discharge midpoint voltage and cycle performance, giving rise to the record-high 1288 Wh kg−1 at 0.1 A g-1 in potential range of 0.3 ∼ 4.0 V. These results indicate the significance of rational material selection and effective pre-lithiation for developing high-performance full-cell LIBs.

Impact of fast charging and low-temperature cycling on lithium-ion battery health: A comparative analysis

Fast charging and low temperatures create harsh conditions that promote lithium deposition on graphite anodes, which significantly accelerates the degradation of the battery's state of health (SoH) and eventually could result in safety concerns. In this work, commercial lithium-ion batteries are investigated under fast charging conditions and at low environmental temperatures. The findings are compared with lithium-ion battery cycled under ambient temperature conditions. The fast charging and low temperatures result in dead lithium formation, which is then characterized by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The low-temperature cycled battery exhibits significant growth of series resistance by an average of 73 %. In comparison, growth in charge transfer resistance is 16 %, and no significant change was observed in solid electrolyte interface (SEI) resistance due to the formation of dead lithium, compared to the battery cycled at ambient temperature. SEM images also confirm the dead lithium formation. The results provide insight into battery degradation in the case of high current due to low temperature and could lead to a better understanding of the degradation mechanism.

Aqueous Zinc-Iodine Pouch Cells with Long Cycling Life and Low Self-Discharge.

Aqueous zinc batteries are practically promising for large-scale energy storage because of cost-effectiveness and safety. However, application is limited because of an absence of economical electrolytes to stabilize both the cathode and anode. Here, we report a facile method for advanced zinc-iodine batteries via addition of a trace imidazolium-based additive to a cost-effective zinc sulfate electrolyte, which bonds with polyiodides to boost anti-self-discharge performance and cycling stability. Additive aggregation at the cathode improves the rate capacity by boosting the I2 conversion kinetics. Also, the introduced additive enhances the reversibility of the zinc anode by adjusting Zn2+ deposition. The zinc-iodine pouch cell, therefore, exhibits industrial-level performance evidenced by a ∼99.98% Coulombic efficiency under ca. 0.4C, a significantly low self-discharge rate with 11.7% capacity loss per month, a long lifespan with 88.3% of initial capacity after 5000 cycles at a 68.3% zinc depth-of-discharge, and fast-charging of ca. 6.7C at a high active-mass loading >15 mg cm-2. Highly significant is that this self-discharge surpasses commercial nickel-metal hydride batteries and is comparable with commercial lead-acid batteries, together with the fact that the lifespan is over 10 times greater than reported works, and the fast-charging performance is better than commercial lithium-ion batteries.

The Lithium Storage Mechanism of Zero-Strain Anode Materials with Ultralong Cycle Lives.

At present, graphite is a widely used anode material in commercial lithium-ion batteries for its low cost, but the large volume expansion (about 10%) after fully lithiated makes the material prone to cracking and even surface stripping in the cycle. Therefore, the development of zero-strain anode materials (volume change <1%) is of great significance. LiAl5O8 is a zero-strain insertion anode material with a high theoretical specific capacity. However, the Li+ storage mechanism remains unclear, and the cycle life as well as fast-charging capability need to be greatly improved to meet the practical requirements. In this study, LiAl5O8 nanorods are prepared by utilizing aluminum ethoxide nanowires as a soft template and doped with the Zr element to further improve the Li+ diffusion coefficient and electronic conductivity, which in turn improves cycle and rate performances. The Zr-doped LiAl5O8 presents a high reversible capacity of 227.2 mAh g-1 after 20,000 cycles under 5 A g-1, which significantly outperforms the state-of-the-art anode materials. In addition, the Li+ storage mechanisms of LiAl5O8 and Zr-doped LiAl5O8 are clearly clarified with a variety of characterization techniques including nuclear magnetic resonance. This work greatly promotes the practical process of zero-strain insertion anode materials.

High Selenium Loading in Vertically Aligned Porous Carbon Framework with Visualized Fast Kinetics for Enhanced Lithium/Sodium Storage

AbstractLithium/sodium–selenium (Li/Na–Se) batteries with high volumetric specific capacity are considered promising as next‐generation battery technologies. However, their practical application is hindered by challenges such as low Se loading in cathodes and the polyselenides shuttle effect. To address these challenges, a new Se host is introduced in the form of a free‐standing N, O co‐doped vertically aligned porous carbon framework decorated with a carbon nanotube forest (VCF‐CNTs), allowing for high mass loading of up to 16 mg cm−2. The low‐tortuosity Se@VCF‐CNTs architecture facilitates rapid lithiation/sodiation kinetics, while the CNT forests in vertical microchannels enhance efficient Se loading and serve as a multi‐layer fence to prevent undesired polyselenide shuttling. Consequently, the Se@VCF‐CNTs cathode displays a significant areal capacity of 10.3 mAh cm−2 at 0.1 C with a Se loading of 16 mg cm−2 for Li–Se batteries, exceeding that of commercial lithium ion batteries (4.0 mAh cm−2). In Na–Se batteries, the Se@VCF‐CNTs electrode with a Se loading of 5 mg cm−2 exhibits a discharge capacity of 436 mAh g−1 after 200 cycles, proving its consistent cycling performance. This study enriches the field of knowledge concerning high‐loading Se‐based battery systems, offering a promising avenue for enhancing energy density in the field.

Unraveling the relationship between the mineralogical characteristics and lithium storage performance of natural graphite anode materials

Anode materials play critical role in cycling life of lithium-ion batteries in practical applications such as electric vehicles (EVs), portable electronic devices, and large-scale power grids. Natural graphite is one of the most successful anodes for commercial lithium-ion batteries due to its high theoretical capacity and low cost and low operating voltage. The mineralogical properties of graphite minerals have an important effect on the electrochemical performance of graphite anode, while their relationship remains ambiguous. In this work, natural graphite samples from four main graphite mining areas in China were selected as the research object, and their mineralogical characteristics were characterized by XRD, SEM, Raman, ICP, SEM, FIB, BET and other test methods. The properties of crystallinity, morphology, surface/phase defects, impurities, and specific surface area of graphite were studied. The results show that the cyclic stability of graphite is mainly affected by bulk defects and crystallinity, and the initial coulombic efficiency is mainly affected by surface defects and specific surface area. Graphite samples with appropriate surface defects, fewer volume defects, appropriate crystallinity, and small specific surface area have better electrochemical performance. It is hoped that this work should guide the manufacture and modification of the natural graphite anodes and promote its wider application in lithium-ion batteries.

Crucial Roles of Ethyl Methyl Carbonate in Lithium-Ion and Dual-Ion Batteries: A Review.

The essential role of electrolyte solutions in traditional electrochemical energy storage devices is crucial to enhancing their performance. Consequently, a wide array of electrolyte mixtures along with diverse electrodes have been extensively explored across different models of secondary batteries. Fascinatingly, the role of ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) as a key cosolvent in the electrolyte mixture of commercial lithium-ion batteries with a graphite anode is garnering growing attention in alternative rechargeable dual-ion batteries utilizing graphite cathodes. In this context, the advancement and function of EMC as a solvent in electrolyte mixtures for lithium-ion and dual-ion batteries were extensively and thoroughly examined in this analysis, encompassing the genesis, synthesis process, and diverse characteristics for the practical uses of these batteries. Here, the review aims to guide readers in understanding EMC's function and impact as a cosolvent in electrolyte mixtures for both major secondary lithium-ion and dual-ion batteries, considering their distinct physicochemical characteristics.

High‐Safety Anode Materials for Advanced Lithium‐Ion Batteries

Lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) play a pivotal role in today's society, with widespread applications in portable electronics, electric vehicles, and smart grids. Commercial LIBs predominantly utilize graphite anodes due to their high energy density and cost‐effectiveness. Graphite anodes face challenges, however, in extreme safety‐demanding situations, such as airplanes and passenger ships. The lithiation of graphite can potentially form lithium dendrites at low temperatures, causing short circuits. Additionally, the dissolution of the solid‐electrolyte‐interphase on graphite surfaces at high temperatures can lead to intense reactions with the electrolyte, initiating thermal runaway. This review introduces two promising high‐safety anode materials, Li4Ti5O12 and TiNb2O7. Both materials exhibit low tendencies towards lithium dendrite formation and have high onset temperatures for reactions with the electrolyte, resulting in reduced heat generation and significantly lower probabilities of thermal runaway. Li4Ti5O12 and TiNb2O7 offer enhanced safety characteristics compared to graphite, making them suitable for applications with stringent safety requirements. This review provides a comprehensive overview of Li4Ti5O12 and TiNb2O7, focusing on their material properties and practical applicability. It aims to contribute to the understanding and development of high‐safety anode materials for advanced LIBs, addressing the challenges and opportunities associated with their implementation in real‐world applications.

Synthesis of high-voltage spinel LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 by Mn2O3 nanosheets for lithium-ion batteries with superior cycle life span

The development of high-voltage cobalt-free spinel LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 (LNMO) by conventional solid-state methods is hampered by its rapid capacity decay due to the impurity phases, inhomogeneous particle size, and dissolution of transition metals. To realize large-scale production and application of LNMO, a two-step modified solid-state method with Mn2O3 nanosheets as a precursor is proposed here. The resulting material (P-LNMO) shows a reduced rock salt impurity phase and enhanced ionic transport through a more uniform control of particle size. As a result, the cycling stability of the disordered LNMO is remarkably improved, where LNMO half-cell capacity retention is 89.5 % at ambient temperature after 1000 cycles. What's more, the LNMO/Graphite full-cell is further assembled showing a discharge specific capacity of 110 mAh g−1 at 1C, and remains 97 % of its initial capacity after 100 cycles. The excellent electrochemical performance indicates that this modified solid-state approach brings a new avenue to the synthesis of LNMO for the upcoming generation of commercial lithium-ion batteries.

Aging Mechanisms and Evolution Patterns of Commercial LiFePO4 Lithium-Ion Batteries

Aging Mechanisms and Evolution Patterns of Commercial LiFePO4 Lithium-Ion Batteries

One-pot synthesis of interconnected carbon-coated silicon nanosheets from clay minerals for high-performance lithium-ion battery anodes

The silicon nanosheet/carbon composite emerges as a promising anode material for the next-generation commercial lithium-ion batteries. However, complex, costly, and energy-intensive synthesis procedures impede its practical application. Herein, the carbon-coated silicon nanosheets (Si/C) have been successfully synthesized via a one-pot strategy, involving a modified magnesiothermic reduction of talc followed by a reaction with CO2. The distinct chemical composition and layered nanostructure of talc enable the retention of Si nanosheets during exothermic reactions without additional templates or heat absorbents. The method shows significant potential for the scalable production of Si/C owing to the abundant silicon source, sustainable carbon source, and straightforward protocol. The resulting Si/C displays a hierarchical porous structure, with both macropores and mesopores, and an interconnected network of carbon-coated Si nanosheets. These structural characteristics facilitate rapid Li+ diffusion and enable the material to accommodate the lithiation-induced mechanical strains. As a result, the Si/C electrode exhibits outstanding electrochemical performance, including a remarkable rate capability (with a specific capacity of 1220 mAh g−1 at 10.0 A g−1) and a high initial Coulombic efficiency of 88%. The work opens a new avenue for the development of Si/C composites from natural clay minerals through an economical and scalable strategy, which would contribute to the practical application of advanced Si-based anodes in lithium-ion batteries.

Highly Conductive Carbon/Carbon Composites as Advanced Multifunctional Anode Materials for Structural Lithium‐Ion Batteries

AbstractCurrently, structural lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) typically use carbon fibers (CFs) as multifunctional anode materials to provide both Li+ storage and high mechanical strength. However, due to the obvious volume expansion of CFs in lithiation process, the fiber structure suffers rapid degradation during cycling. Herein, CFs‐reinforced carbon matrix (C/C) composites are proposed as multifunctional anodes for structural LIBs for the first time. The C/C composite presents distinctive core/shell structure, in which CF as the core supplies a fast and continuous electron conduction pathway along with excellent mechanical strength, while the layered pyrolytic carbon shell accommodates the volume change of CF and provides additional ion storage. The impact of the C/C microstructure on the ion/electron transport and the Li+ storage mechanism behind such a unique hybrid structure are explored. Owing to the structural advantages of the C/C composite, the LiFePO4||C/C full cell exhibits surprising electrochemical performances at high electrode mass loadings, which are far superior to those of the present structural LIBs and even surpass the commercial LIBs at the same mass loadings. Moreover, the pouch cell presents excellent mechanical strength and mechanical‐electrochemical coupling characteristics. This work demonstrates great potential of the C/C composites as new multifunctional anodes for high‐performance structural batteries.

The gas production characteristics and catastrophic hazards evaluation of thermal runaway for LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 lithium-ion batteries under different SOCs

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used as electrochemical energy storage systems in electric vehicles due to their high energy density and long cycle life. However, fire accidents present a trend of frequent occurrence caused by thermal runaway (TR) of LIBs, so it is especially important to evaluate the catastrophic hazards of these LIBs. This study conducted the adiabatic TR test coupled gas production test, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry test, and explosion limit test on a commercial LIB with Ni0.5Co0.2Mn0.3 as the cathode material at different states of charge (SOCs). The results show that the TR temperature and the maximum temperature at low SOC are lower compared to that at a high SOC. The probability of LIBs TR at less than SOC = 50 % is small and also causing less harm. For the gas production characteristics, the lower the SOC of the battery, the lower the gas production volume. The peak and steady-state gas production increase with the increase of SOC. For the mixed gases generated during TR, the content of CO2 shows a trend of decreasing with the increasing of battery SOC, while that of H2 and CO increase with the increasing of SOC. For the explosion limit of the mixed gas, the lower explosion limit and upper explosion limit decrease and increase with the increasing of SOC, respectively. Finally, based on the seven parameters related to the TR gas production of LIBs and so on, the analytic hierarchy process method was used to establish a LIB TR disaster-causing hazard evaluation system. The evaluation system can quantitatively evaluate the thermal safety of a LIB. This is instructive for establishing a comprehensive quantitative evaluation method for battery safety in practical engineering applications.

Unraveling capacity recovery behavior of 78 Ah pouch cells after long-term storage for EVs: Passive anode and calendar-aged SEI effects

The unavoidable long-term storage after production can result in capacity and power fading in commercial lithium-ion batteries. Remarkably, the decreased capacity is partially and gradually recovered when the stored cells are cycled again, known as capacity recovery. However, it is challenging to analyze the capacity recovery phenomenon independently from the capacity decay during re-cycling. Moreover, the most well-known explanation for capacity recovery, the passive anode effect (PAE) is only focus on the lithium inventory inside the overhang anode site. To address these issues, the large-capacity LiNi0.4Co0.3Mn0.3O2/graphite pouch cells stored for 4 years is used. Typically, throughout the re-cycling, the capacity is gradually recovered up to 120 cycles, and the fully recovered capacity was maintained up to 500 cycles, indicating that additional capacity decay by re-cycling was almost suppressed. Also, we clearly reveal the impact of breakdown and thinning of the calendar-aged solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on the whole anode site influences both capacity and power recovery, not just limited to the PAE. Furthermore, by combining both the PAE and breakdown of the calendar-aged SEI into a life prediction model, the capacity recovery behavior for up to 1000 cycles under various operating conditions can be predicted.

Towards Long-Term Monitoring of Commercial Lithium-Ion Batteries Enabled by Externally Affixed Fiber Sensors and Strain-Based Prognostic Strategies

Real-time monitoring of both continuous and spontaneous degradation in lithium-ion batteries is challenging due to the limited number of quantitative metrics available during cycling. In this regard, improved sensing approaches enabled by sensors of high accuracy, precision, and durability are key to achieving comprehensive state estimation and meeting rigorous safety standards. In this work, external temperature and strain monitoring in commercial Li-ion button cells was carried out using tandem pairs of polymer-based and silica-based optical fiber Bragg grating sensors. The decoupled data revealed that the sensors can reliably track strain and temperature evolution for over 500 cycles, as evidenced by periodic patterns with no sign of sensor degradation or loss of fidelity. Moreover, monitoring the strain signal enabled early detection of an anomalous cell over ∼60 cycles ahead of an electrochemical signature and abrupt drop in capacity, suggesting that mechanical sensing data may offer unique benefits in some cases. Detailed mechanical monitoring via incremental strain analysis suggests a parallel path toward understanding cell degradation mechanisms, regardless of whether they are continuous or discrete in nature. The accuracy and durability of such a package-level optical fiber sensing platform offers a promising pathway for developing robust real-time battery health monitoring techniques and prognostic strategies.

Diphenylphosphoryl Azide as a Multifunctional Flame Retardant Electrolyte Additive for Lithium-Ion Batteries

Graphite anode materials and carbonate electrolyte have been the top choices for commercial lithium-ion batteries (LIBS) for a long time. However, the uneven deposition and stripping of lithium cause irreversible damage to the graphite structure, and the low flash point and high flammability of the carbonate electrolyte pose a significant fire safety risk. Here, we proposed a multifunctional electrolyte additive diphenylphosphoryl azide (DPPA), which can construct a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) with high ionic conductivity lithium nitride (Li3N) to ensure efficient transport of Li+. This not only protects the artificial graphite (AG) electrode but also inhibits lithium dendrites to achieve excellent electrochemical performance. Meanwhile, the LIBS with DPPA offers satisfactory flame retardancy performance. The AG//Li half cells with DPPA-0.5M can still maintain a specific capacity of about 350 mAh/g after 200 cycles at 0.2 C. Its cycle performance and rate performance were better than commercial electrolyte (EC/DMC). After cycling, the microstructure surface of the AG electrode was complete and flat, and the surface of the lithium metal electrode had fewer lithium dendrites. Importantly, we found that the pouch cell with DPPA-0.5M had low peak heat release rate. When exposed to external conditions of continuous heating, DPPA significantly improved the fire safety of the LIBS. The research of DPPA in lithium electrolyte is a step towards the development of safe and efficient lithium batteries.

Ladderlike polysilsesquioxanes derived dual-carbon-buffer-shell structural silicon as stable anode materials for lithium-ion batteries

Silicon-carbon (Si/C) composite materials have been proven to be one of the most promising anode materials for the next generation of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to their high theoretical capacity. However, the substantial volume changes during alloying/dealloying processes have posed significant challenges to the working lifespan of Si-based anodes. In this study, we designed a dual-carbon-layer-structured Si composite anode material (DCS-Si). Using ladderlike polysilsesquioxanes as a precursor, we employed a zinc thermal reaction to internally reduce the Si–O–Si framework to Si0. Simultaneously, the phenyl groups directly connected to Si atoms served as a carbon source for the internally dense coating layer. The obtained product underwent further coating controllable pyrolysis reactions to form an external carbon coating layer. As anode for LIBs, DCS-Si delivered a reversible specific capacity exceeding 1000 mAh g−1. Even after 1350 cycles at a current density of 0.3 A g−1, the specific capacity remained above 500 mAh g−1. Moreover, even under a high current density of 3 A g−1, after nearly 1000 cycles, the capacity retention rate still exceeded 70%. Further testing of the full cell also indicated that DCS-Si is a highly promising high-energy-density anode, with potential applications in future commercial lithium-ion batteries.

Pentafluorophenyl diethoxy phosphate: An electrolyte additive for high-voltage cathodes of lithium-ion batteries

Increasing the upper limit of the charging voltage in commercial lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) can enable them to have a higher energy density, but during high-voltage charging and discharging, the electrolyte will accelerate the decomposition, and the interfacial adverse reaction among the cathode and electrolyte is serious, which corrodes the cathode active material and consumes excessive electrolyte, and ultimately lead to a shorter service life of lithium-ion batteries. To address this issue, an electrolyte additive with properties suitable for high voltage cathodes, named pentafluorophenyl diethoxy phosphate (FPOP), was synthesized in this work and successfully applied to LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 cathode (NCM-811). Density Functional Theory (DFT) computations reveal that the FPOP additive undergoes preferential oxidation and self-polymerizes on the NCM-811 cathode surface to establishing a safeguarding film at the cathode-electrolyte interface (CEI). This film effectively inhibits detrimental side reactions. The electrochemical performance test data indicated that the retention rate of discharge-specific capacity in batteries was markedly enhanced with 0.1 wt% of FPOP when added to the standard electrolyte. Specifically, after subjecting the batteries to 200 cycles at a current of 0.2C and under voltages ranging from 4.2 V to 4.5 V, the retention of discharge ratio capacity increased by 37.6 %, 39.2 %, 26.9 %, and 37.1 % correspondingly. Morphology characterization and spectroscopic characterization showed that FPOP could not only construct a stable CEI film by oxidation during the first stages of lithium precipitation but also remove HF by strongly binding to the HF in the electrolyte or dissociating H+ and F− from HF, which ultimately enhanced the batteries' capacity to operate effectively at elevated voltage levels. Therefore, incorporating FPOP as an additive in electrolyte presents a cost-efficient approach to achieving elevated energy density.