Commercial Export Research Articles

Fusarium Tropical Race 4 in Latin America and the Caribbean: status and global research advances towards disease management.

Fusarium wilt of banana (FWB), caused by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), poses an undeniable threat to global banana production. This disease has intensified in recent years, with the tropical race 4 (TR4) strain spreading rapidly. Since 2018, the number of affected countries has increased from 16 to 23, presenting a significant challenge to researchers, producers, and National Plant Protection Organizations (NPPOs) worldwide. The potential impact of TR4 in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) is particularly concerning. This region boasts seven of the top ten banana-exporting countries, and bananas and plantains are crucial for food security and income generation. In Colombia, where TR4 was detected in 2019, the disease has already spread from La Guajira to Magdalena, and it is currently affecting 20 large commercial export farms. In Peru, the disease was detected in 2021 and although still restricted to the northern region, flood irrigation and heavy rains associated with the Yaku cyclone, boosted pathogen spread, and more than 400 small organic banana farmers are currently affected. In Venezuela, TR4 detection occurred in 2023, with plantations across three states and five municipalities now affected. Worryingly, TR4 has also been confirmed in plantains, a staple food in the region. Current national responses in LAC primarily rely on preventive and reactive measures: preventing initial incursions and containing outbreaks to avoid further spread. However, the disease's relentless progression suggests that its eventual presence in all banana-producing areas is likely. Therefore, exploring alternative management approaches beyond pathogen exclusion becomes crucial, both in affected and disease-free regions. This paper examines the current spread of TR4, focusing on epidemiological aspects and recent research-based management options. Key epidemiological features were highlighted, drawing practical examples from various scales (plots to landscapes) and utilizing experiences from LAC's fight against TR4. The paper also reviews field-tested approaches in biosecurity, biological control, resistant varieties, soil health, and integrated disease management, acknowledging the specific challenges faced by smallholder settings. In each section research initiatives were analyzed, identifying gaps, and proposing directions to minimize TR4 impact and accelerate the development of sustainable solutions for managing this devastating disease.

Review of Historical and Zooarchaeological Data to Trace Past Biogeographic Distribution of Endangered Huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) to Enhance Conservation Strategies

Conservation strategies for huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), listed as an endangered cervid by IUCN, have not helped to reverse its declining population trends. Recent evaluations of historical data revealed that they also inhabited lower valleys and grasslands as residents or only during winter. However, the dogma persists that huemuls do not need such habitats. To determine if more solid evidence exists to back up or refute our hypothesis that huemuls once inhabited lower valleys and grasslands, we researched the literature and discovered additional relevant historical sources on this species. These new findings substantiate that huemuls also occupied unforested areas, reaching the Atlantic coast, and resided on various islands including Tierra del Fuego, and that their co-occurrence with guanaco was frequent. Their extreme naivety towards humans resulted in their extirpation on winter ranges settled by humans, resulting in refugee huemuls year-round on remote mountain summer ranges. The ease by which indigenous people could kill them for subsistence and commercial export of hides to Europe, followed by the lowlands becoming modified by settlers and their exotic species facilitated the huemuls’ extirpation. The hypothesis of a dramatic modification of the original biogeographical distribution of huemuls is supported by anatomical and ecological features along with historical accounts. Sedentariness on only rugged summer ranges makes long-term survival of this species crucially challenging and requires sound conservation strategies that incorporate geographical areas of their former distribution.

Vapor heat treatment for quarantine control of the oriental fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) in papaya fruit from Thailand

A two-stage vapor heat treatment (VHT) is used commercially for disinfestation of the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae) in various tropical fruits exported from Thailand to international markets. In the present study, VHT was tested against B. dorsalis in papayas to confirm a high level of quarantine security. The first instar larva of B. dorsalis was the most heat tolerant life stage. The VHT consists of heating papaya fruits with hot air at 50–80 % RH from ambient temperature to a fruit center temperature of 43 °C (dry pre-heating period), then heating with saturated hot air to 47 °C (wet heating period) with a 20-min hold at 47°. In large-scale confirmatory tests of this VHT treatment schedule, none of the treated 78,405 first instar larvae survived. Papayas at the color break maturity stage treated by VHT and held under simulated commercial export conditions showed no differences in fruit quality compared with non-treated controls. VHT showed high efficacy in disinfestation of papayas of B. dorsalis while maintaining fruit quality and could be used as a standard quarantine treatment for papaya exported from Thailand.

Analyse du processus d'émergence de la filière figue de barbarie et de ses coproduits en Algérie : potentiel, contraintes et perspectives

This article analyses several possibilities to valorize prickly pear farming in Algeria, a context dominated by semi-arid ecosystems. It uses sociotechnical and evolutionary approaches in order to understand the new dynamics happening within this sector. Based on field surveys and literature review, this study shows that the production and processing of prickly pear by-products present a high potential, but remains largely under-exploited. Production is mostly artisanal, collection uses traditional practices and marketing is dominated by unstructured and informal channels. The development of processing activities is fairly recent and its dynamic reflects the high interest for this emerging sector by adopting certain practices already observed elsewhere. Finally, an important constraint is foreign market entry. Due to the partial failure of producer’s commercial export strategies’, local outlets remain dominant.

Technical considerations towards commercialization of porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome (PRRS) virus resistant pigs

The selection and introduction of disease resistance genes in livestock not only provide health benefits to animals but opportunities for breeders and farmers to meet the growing demand for high-quality meat and milk while reducing agriculture’s footprint on the environment. As traditional methods of classical breeding and selection for trait improvement are slow, recent progress in several areas of biology including (a) understanding host–pathogen interactions, (b) inexpensive and rapid DNA sequencing, and (c) robust gene editing like CRISPR-Cas provide geneticists tools to accelerate discovery and deployment of disease resistance alleles in livestock. Using these advances, the introduction of resistance genes into commercially relevant germplasm requires access to genetically superior livestock, an infrastructure for scalable allele deployment, freedom to operate, global regulatory approvals, and acceptance of gene edited livestock by producers and consumers. Importantly, academic researchers have recently discovered that modification of the CD163 gene in pigs can confer resistance to the virus that causes porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS). While this achievement represents a major step towards solving an important disease in livestock, to realize the positive impact on animal health while benefiting the pork industry and consumers, it is necessary to introduce this recessive disease resistance allele into commercial breeding populations. Rather than backcrossing the resistance gene from a few non-commercial founders, as a global supplier of high genetic merit livestock genetics, Genus plc and its pig division PIC (Pig Improvement Company) with Genus R&D have mobilized advances in reproductive biology, gene editing, DNA sequencing, and bioinformatics to simultaneously generate and introduce a single modified CD163 allele across four genetically diverse porcine lines of commercial importance that prevents PRRS virus (PRRSV) infection. This report focuses on technical aspects for a scaled gene editing program to consider for rapid and efficient generation and advancement of a small population of non-transgenic founder pigs for commercial breeding. This high genetic merit herd containing a PRRS disease resistance allele will provide important benefits to animal health and food chain value once approved for commercial sale and export.

The position of transnational economic structures in the system of international economic relations under globalization

The purpose of the article is to consider the development of transnational economic structures in the context of globalization processes, taking into account economic and non-economic factors. The article examines the theoretical foundations of the processes of transnationalization, the problems of foreign economic relations, the globalization of the economy and its relationship with the processes of economic development. The impact of transnational economic structures on socio-economic structures depends on the state's ability to find effective forms and methods of their use in its national interests. The consequence of the high degree of production internationalization at the largest TNCs was their establishment of dominance in the world commodity markets and in the leading sectors of the world economy. The decisive role of giant monopolies in the world market is determined by the fact that they occupy a dominant position not only in production and commercial export, but also in the trade of patents and licenses, the provision of technical services, the implementation of contract works, since the main part of scientific and technical activities, achievements and advanced production experience are concentrated in their hands. The main reasons for the emergence of transnational corporations under the influence of the integration and globalization processes of the world economy are considered. The thesis is proved that modern transnational economic structures represent economic structures with a complex organization, which strive to achieve a positive synergistic effect and a positive economic result, taking into account discounting at a certain stage of planning. Recently, TNCs have been dynamically increasing the volume of capital investments in developing countries, which is explained by the stabilization of the economic situation there and the appearance of new investment proposals, the implementation of profitable contracts. The analysis of the activities of the largest transnational corporations was carried out and the factors of their success were determined. The advantages and disadvantages of direct foreign investment of transnational economic structures, as the main form of expansion of their activities, are outlined. The main positive features of the TNCs activities in the territories of the countries are: creation of supply and satisfaction of population demand for new products; increase in population employment and creation of new jobs; increase in revenues to the national budgets of countries. The main negative features include: monopolization of power; creation of negative competition for national producers by monopolistic pricing of products; the primary satisfaction of one's own interests, regardless the needs of states. The dynamics of the sectoral and regional movement of direct foreign investments of transnational corporations are considered. Transnational corporations penetrate all sectors of the economy, however, the activities of most TNCs are related to the production sector of the economy. The largest benefits from the financial and economic activity of TNCs are brought to them by the base countries, the domains of which are the most developed states of the world. Keywords: transnational economic structures, globalization, processes of transnationalization, transnational corporations, international economy.

COSTO DE OPORTUNIDAD DEL SECTOR AGRÍCOLA COMERCIAL EXPORTADOR EN EL PERÚ, 1998-2017

The objective of the investigation was to determine the opportunity cost in the commercial export agricultural sector, based on in the economic foundations for Peru, period 1998-2017. The methodology of the research was explanatory and was carried out under a longitudinal non-experimental design, with the application of the capital asset price model (CAPM) for determining the opportunity cost of the exporting commercial agricultural sector of Peru, in the period 1998-2017. Data were processed from the share price indices of 19 agricultural companies listed on the Lima Stock Exchange. The results showed the relationship of market performance variables and systematic risk (Beta) in the determination of the opportunity cost of the commercial agricultural exporting sector, obtaining a value greater than 29%. In conclusion, there is viability of agricultural projects and businesses that previously were not because much higher rates were applied, managed by the banking system in Peru.

Feasibility of a Sheep Welfare Assessment Tool in the Pre-export Phase of Australian Live Export Industry

Sheep are exposed to numerous stressors and environments during the pre-export phase of the live export industry. Establishing how animal behavior, health and demeanor reflect their experiences prior to sea transport is the first step toward testing the suitability and practicality of animal welfare measures. A total of 240 merino wethers originating from four farms were assessed at four locations in the live export chain: on farm, upon arrival to the registered export feedlot (Fe1), prior to departing the feedlot (Fe2) and 30 min post loading onto a live export vessel. Each of these locations and time points represent relevant assessment points as part of the commercial live export process. Pen-side behavioral and health measures were collected. Video footage was collected and edited to provide 48 30–45 s duration clips that were then scored by 12 assessors against 10 demeanor terms using a Qualitative Behavioral Assessment (QBA) methodology; data were analyzed using Principal Components (PC) analysis. Repeated Measures ANOVAs tested for variation in each dependent measure across each location and time point. There were low levels of health issues recorded overall; however, seven health and behavior measures significantly varied across the locations and time points. Most vocalizing was recorded on farm; most drinking, eating and resting behaviors were recorded at Fe1 and ruminating at Fe2; while the highest percentage of wethers with ocular discharge and lameness was on the vessel. For QBA, PC1 explained 30.5% of the variability, with agitated and nervous loaded to one end of the axis and calm and relaxed loaded to the opposing end. PC2 explained 24.5% of the variability, with interested, alert and sociable loaded to one end of the axis and lethargic loaded to the opposing end. Spearman's rank correlations between behavior, health and PC scores indicated that wethers eating, ruminating and resting were scored as more calm/relaxed, while those scored as more agitated/nervous or/ lethargic were also likely to vocalize. Determining how wethers respond to the different environments in the immediate pre-export phase of the journey informs on their welfare and the practicality of using a behavior tool to assess animal welfare.

A Game-Based Approach to Exploring Gender Differences in Smallholder Decisions to Change Farming Practices: White Rice Production in Laos

What influences farmers’ decisions to adopt agricultural technologies is an important question for international agricultural research projects. There are often interpersonal differences between women and men that influence the adoption of decisions and behaviours, but few studies in the literature focus on these factors. We describe a game-based approach to explore decision-making processes underpinning the adoption of new farming technologies and practices in Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Sowing a different rice variety is the tailored technology. The game explored adoption behaviours influencing decisions on transitioning from growing glutinous rice, a traditional variety preferred for consumption, to “white” rice for commercial export to international markets. We conducted separate game-workshops with 36 women and 36 men in 4 villages of southern Laos that were transitioning from subsistence to commercial smallholder production. The gaming exposed various possible behaviours and decisions that women and men considered. Access to resources, both assets and information, was equal for all players, yet women were found to adopt new rice varieties more readily than men and to engage in cooperative behaviours in the game situation. The study highlighted the need for further gender-sensitive research into cooperation among women in the agricultural context—an understanding beneficial for countries and regions undergoing agricultural transition.

An application of Convolutional Neural Network to lobster grading in the Southern Rock Lobster supply chain

Southern Rock Lobster (SRL) is an important commercial export fishery of the Australian economy with a contribution of $250 million annually. However, a range of risks relating to food safety and product fraud requires this industry to develop an effective traceability solution. In response to this biometric identification techniques are seen as a possible solution to provide greater security compared to the current tag-based tracking systems. This paper describes how a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) can be used in conjunction with image processing techniques to enable an autonomic grading solution in the SRL supply chain. The research is an essential part of an overall investigation into designing a low-cost biometric identification solution for tracking lobsters along their supply chain from catch to table. By using a CNN, the research aims to improve the previous research on lobster grading in establishing a reliable and flexible traceability method to meet different supply chain contexts. In this approach, a pre-trained Mask-RCNN model was adopted to extract regions of interest from lobster images. The deep learning ability of this model allows the carapace areas to be segmented from lobster images automatically for calculating grading attributes including size, weight and colour. This outcome then also generates a high-quality input dataset for the follow-up research on identifying individual lobsters. To prove the effectiveness, the proposed method was validated on a large image dataset collected at a lobster processor and tested on mobile application environment. The findings establish a critical contribution to the complete biometric solution developed for SRL products traceability.

The status of mango cultivars, market perspectives and mango cultivar improvement for the future

Red-skinned cultivars continue to dominate commercial export in the Western Hemisphere, relying heavily on their eye-appeal in the consumer marketplace; the Eastern Hemisphere relies predominantly on yellow-skinned mangos represented by a wide range of cultivars. The predominant cultivars in the Western Hemisphere remain ‘Tommy Atkins’, ‘Ataulfo’, ‘Kent’, ‘Keitt’ and ‘Haden’. The success of the ‘Ataulfo’ within the marketplace is based on its distinction from other cultivars (yellow-skinned), its superior shelf-life and eating quality. In the Eastern Hemisphere ‘Alphonso’, ‘Kesar’, ‘Dusheri’, ‘Langra’ and ‘Totapuri’ among others from India and Pakistan; ‘Nam Doc Mai’ from Thailand; and ‘Carabao’ from the Philippines dominate the exports. Growers, exporters and importers, marketers and retailers are looking for alternatives for the Asian, European and United States market. ‘Palmer’ has been planted in the Americas for over 70 years and is gaining favor due to eye-appeal and eating quality. Volumes are small but increasing and if concerns over proper picking and handling can be addressed, production will increase. Cultivars such as ‘Edward’, ‘Mallika’, ‘Kheio Savoy’ and ‘Nam Doc Mai’ are grown and test marketed based on their superior flavor, but realistic commercial yields are low (23-45 kg tree(‑1); 50-100 lb tree(‑1)) and there are challenges in harvest, handling and shipping (Campbell et al., 2005). In the Eastern Hemisphere ‘Shelly’ and ‘Calypso’ have been planted and successfully marketed on a small scale in the past decade. India and Pakistan have dozens of cultivars under testing for export, but must first overcome the challenges of production, handling and shipping. New and older alternative mango cultivars are available, but they must be tested across a range of climatic zones. This is a long term project, but will avoid the large-scale planting of cultivars that are not suited for an area and also will help to determine the longevity of a cultivar in the market. Rootstocks/scion interactions can also be tested in this way and will become increasing necessary as the grower returns continue to decline in mango. Breeding programs around the world have labored to create new cultivars for the mango industry and are based on sound breeding and selection criteria; yet, increased effort must be made to include field production criteria, such as tree size, natural disease tolerance of the bloom, young and mature fruit, flavor, productivity and commercial yield efficiency. The opportunity for breeding improvement in the mango is significant and interspecific of Mangifera indica and related species are in process at Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden.

Game Analysis of Risk Factors under Export Credit Insurance Finance

Abstract Export credit insurance plays an important role in promoting exportation, and thus it represents a guarantee of payment receivable for exporter. It not only offers a good way to disperse and release risk caused by uncertainty of foreign countries and importers’ credit, but also inspires a good finance support for exporter. Export corporations can apply loan from banks easily with the guarantee of export credit insurance. Characterized with lower threshold, export credit insurance finance(ECIF) becomes a good funding choice especially for small and medium companies and brings considerable intermediate businesses to commercial banks. Despite the benefits of ECIF, false trades appear frequently due to the intricate risks that are hard to be measured by quantitative method. The risks covered by export credit insurance include commercial risk and political risk. Commercial risks can be classified by two reasons: importer bankruptcy and importer collusion with exporter. The risk of insolvency can be measured by modern credit risk models, however, the probability that importer breaches a contract due to dishonesty is hard to be discerned because of information asymmetry and high cost of investigation. In ECIF, the risk is even harder to be measured as risks form both importer and exporter are involved. Game theory is widely used in adverse selection and moral hazard. The application of game theory inspired a microeconomic way of risk analysis in ECIF. The case of ECIF can be a seen as a game among the export enterprise, importer, insurer and bank. This paper will figure out the utility of each party under certain default situation and analyze each risk factor. We adopt joint game approach and tree model to obtain the equilibrium result. The purpose is to maximize the expected utility of each party and minimize the probability of exporter and importer’s collusion as they are the core reasons for the loss of commercial bank and export credit agency (ECA). Since the export credit insurance industry and related risk research are still in the early stage in China, we hope this study can enlighten a new way of risk analysis on ECIF.

Non-Host Status of Commercial Export Grade Lemon Fruit (Citrus limon(L.) Burman f. cv. Eureka) forCeratitis capitata,Ceratitis rosa,Ceratitis quiliciiandBactrocera dorsalis(Diptera: Tephritidae) in South Africa

Markets importing citrus fruit including lemons, Citrus limon (L.) Burman f., from South Africa require that the fruit be free of fruit fly pests (Diptera: Tephritidae). Historically there has been no fruit fly infestation recorded on lemons destined for export from South Africa. In this study, we assessed the host status of commercial export grade Eureka lemons, Citrus limon (L.) Burmanf. cv. Eureka, for four fruit fly pest species of economic importance in South Africa: Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), Ceratitis rosa Karsch, Ceratitis quilicii De Meyer, Mwatawala & Virgilio, and Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel). Trapping was conducted in 10 Eureka lemon orchards in two major citrus production regions over two citrus seasons between 2016 and 2017 to determine the level of fruit fly abundance in the sampled orchards. Lemons were collected at harvest over the two seasons in the same orchards where trapping was conducted. Fruit fly infestation of the sampled lemons was determined by dissection. Additionally, infestation of lemons was determined under forced exposure to mature mated females of C. capitata and B. dorsalis. Trapping data showed the presence of adults of all four fruit fly species in the sampled lemon orchards. No fruit fly infestation was detected in 43 222 Eureka lemons sampled at harvest. There was also no infestation of lemons under forced exposure conditions. The results of this study provide evidence with 99.99 % efficacy and a 99%confidence level that SouthAfrican commercial export grade Eureka lemon fruit is not a host for C. capitata, C. rosa, C. quilicii or B. dorsalis.

Disentangling economic, social, and environmental drivers of coral-reef fish trade in Micronesia

Abstract Fisheries represent a fundamental resource linking social and ecological systems. Yet, unsustainable fishing regimes prevail across many tropical regions as a result of growing consumer demand and market expansion. Using the extensive reef-fish trade between Chuuk and Guam (Micronesia) as a case study, we examined 12 years of commercial reef-fish export data to capture both inter-annual and intra-annual trends. Reef-fish exports from Chuuk increased steadily between 2003 and 2010 fueled by increasing demand on Guam, but declined sharply from 2010 to 2014 as export costs grew and profit margins were reduced. Intra-annual examinations furthered that low winds and new moon periods were the strongest drivers of daily exports during the initial years of the study, but the governmental disbursement of food-stamp allowances on Guam became the strongest driver in later years when profit margins were lower. Seasonal cycles were also influential, as exports within each year peaked during the Catholic lent season. In sum, the Chuuk-Guam reef-fish trade industry became increasingly dependent on opportunistic demand from Guam, while environmental regimes evolved to become secondary drivers of export volume. The ability to meet foreign demand may suggest a sustainable fishery in Chuuk, however, mounting evidence suggests that consistent supply to international markets masks growing, unsustainable harvesting regimes. Dwindling profits may lead to instability in Guam’s fresh reef-fish trade industry, and also suggested uncertain futures for Chuuk fishers, Guam retailers, and a society dependent on healthy protein. We last compared the sequential expansion of Guam’s reef-fish acquisition footprint across the Indo-Pacific with expansions reported for the Hong Kong live reef food fish trade industry, highlighting the growing impacts of population centers on small-scale coral-reef fisheries as markets globalize.

Effect of five chemical compounds on larval metamorphosis of the Cortez geoduck clam, Panopea globosa

The clam, Panopea globosa, is one of two geoduck species intensively exploited in Mexico because of its high demand and commercial export value to Asian countries. Current efforts to develop successful seed production technology involve appropriate methods for improving the survival of larval and metamorphic stages. Several organic and inorganic chemicals have been successfully used to induce, synchronize or accelerate the settlement and/or metamorphosis of different molluscan species. In the present study the effect of 5 chemicals (serotonin, GABA, L-DOPA, epinephrine and KCl) on the metamorphosis of P. globosa larvae was tested at 3 different concentrations (10−6, 10−5 and 10−4M, or 1, 10 and 20mM in the case of KCl), with 3 different exposure periods (1.5, 6 and 24h). Percent metamorphosis and survival were evaluated after 30h. In each case, 3 metamorphic phases were documented (initial, intermediate and completed). Survival approached 100% after exposure to the different treatments, except with L-DOPA, where 80% of P. globosa larvae died after 24h exposure at the highest concentration (10−4M). The compounds GABA, L-DOPA and KCl failed to induce larval metamorphosis when compared to their respective controls. Serotonin rapidly triggered the initiation of metamorphosis, and the highest percent of metamorphosed larvae (87%±6.7 standard error) was observed in the combination of 6h exposure and 10−6M concentration. Epinephrine effects were slower than those of serotonin, yet the former also induced a high percent metamorphosis (>75%) after 6 to 24h exposure to a concentration of 10−4M or 10−6M. It is concluded that both serotonin and epinephrine can be potentially used to accelerate and synchronize the process of metamorphosis of P. globosa larvae.

Banking Sector Consolidation: Possible Effects for Sectoral Credit Allocation and Economic Growth in Nigeria

This study investigated possible effects of banking sector consolidation- credit allocation to selected sectors on the growth of Nigerian economy. utilizing time series data on growth rate of GDP, banking sector credit distribution to the agriculture, manufacturing, oil and gas/mining, commercial (export financing) sectors and bank size (number of Deposit money bank branches) for the period 1981 - 2015 and employing Vector Error Correction Model (VECM), the results indicate that only banking sector credit allocation to the manufacturing sector is positive and significant at 5 percent level. Banking credit to agriculture, oil & gas/mining, commercial and bank size were all insignificant at 5 percent level. This result revealed that funds allocated to the manufacturing sector spurred economic growth in Nigeria during the duration of this investigation. Other finding of study shows that the manufacturing sector has higher propensity for increasing investment, job creation and value addition hence attracts funds from the banks than other sectors. Based on these findings, the paper suggested creation of enabling environment and enactments of policies that will enhance higher credit allocation to manufacturing sector in particular and the real sector in general in order to spur investment, job creation and stimulate economic growth in Nigeria.

Protonex can export fuel cells for civilian unmanned vehicles

Massachusetts-based Protonex has received notification from the US Department of Commerce that its family of fuel cell propulsion systems are now designated as EAR99 (Export Administration Regulations 99) compliant, allowing commercial export and deployment in a variety of civilian unmanned vehicle applications.

Influencia del capital humano y la violencia ciudadana sobre el crecimiento económico: Perú 1994-2014

The objective of this article is to learn about the effects of human capital, violence and insecurity on the economic growth of the Peruvian departments during the 1994-2014 period. The econometric regression used is based on Ordinary Least Squares Method and indicates the existence of a partial interdepartmental convergence. The convergence rate is 0,415. The human capital accumulation (approximated for the years applicable for the study) shows a positive influence over the departmental economic growth, while violence and insecurity (represented by crimes against public heritage) shows a weak negative effect. Another variable that affects this process in a favorably is the higher level of commercial export integration.

Multiparameter Analysis of Cooling Efficiency of Ventilated Fruit Cartons using CFD: Impact of Vent Hole Design and Internal Packaging

Forced-air cooling (FAC) efficiency of fruit packed in ventilated cartons can be considerably improved by revising vent hole design and tailoring these openings according to the internal packaging used. Current vent hole designs for fruit cartons, however, often result from trials and errors or are developed in order to improve a specific package functionality, such as fruit cooling rate. This study presents a novel multiparameter evaluation process for ventilated fruit packaging. This multi-parameter strategy evaluates cooling rate and cooling uniformity, airflow resistance and energy efficiency. Computational fluid dynamics is used to evaluate the impact of internal trays and four vent hole designs. One of the designs investigated is currently used in commercial export of apples, while the other three are new configurations proposed to improve fruit cooling efficiency. Results showed that the addition of trays to the existing commercially used Standard Vent hole design increased ventilation energy consumption by 31 % compared to cartons without trays, but in the two newly proposed carton designs (Altvent and Multivent), the energy usage was reduced by 27 and 26 %, respectively, as airflow was distributed more evenly between the five fruit layers. The use of the new vent hole designs (Altvent and Multivent) compared to the Standard Vent design, also considerably improved cooling uniformity and energy efficiency during FAC, reducing cooling heterogeneity by 79 and 51 %, as well as energy consumption by 48 and 7 %, when packed with and without trays, respectively. By simultaneous evaluation of multiple parameters, this analysis approach thus unveiled the benefits and disadvantages of the new ventilated carton designs and can be used to further improve vent hole designs for specific cold chains.

The Host Status of Lemons for the False Codling Moth,Thaumatotibia leucotreta(Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) with Particular Reference to Export Protocols

The South African citrus industry is dependent on export of fresh fruit to many markets around the world, with approximately 70 % of South Africa’s citrus crop being exported (CGA 2013). The false codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is recorded as a pest of citrus fruit in southern Africa (Newton 1998; Grout & Moore 2015). As a result of its endemism to sub-Saharan Africa (Moore 2002), certain export markets of importance for the South African citrus industry, such as Peoples Republic of China, U.S.A. and South Korea, regulate it as a quarantine pest. Control of the pest in the field can be highly effective, using a suite of integrated control options, applied with diligent management (Moore & Hattingh 2012). These can succeed in reducing T. leucotreta infestation by 97 % or more (Moore et al. 2015). Such an integrated system, using the sterile insect technique as the mainstay of the programme, has succeeded in reducing moth catches by 99 %, fruit infestation by 96 % and export rejections by 89 % in the Western Cape Province of South Africa, since the inception of the programme in 2007 (Barnes et al. 2015). Despite the potential efficacy of such control strategies, some export markets still require mandatory post-harvest cold treatment of citrus fruit as a phytosanitary risk mitigation measure for T. leucotreta (SA-DAFF 2014). The cold treatment developed for T. leucotreta by Myburgh (1965) entails maintenance of the fruit at temperatures below 0 °C for 22 days. Such treatment is not only costly to apply, but there is a high risk of the fruit developing chilling injury (Lafuente et al. 2003; Cronje 2007). Some citrus fruit types are able to tolerate such cold treatment, if carefully managed (Lafuente & Zacarias 2006). However, some other citrus types are highly sensitive to cold damage and this cold treatment is not a feasible risk mitigation measure for commercial export of these types (Lafuente & Zacarias 2006). Lemons are highly sensitive to cold damage and cannot withstand exposure to temperatures below 0 °C for 22 days (Underhill et al. 1999; Lafuente & Zacarias 2006). Although standalone postharvest quarantine treatments, such as cold treatment, are still the most commonly used phytosanitary risk mitigation measure (Paull & Armstrong 1994), a range of alternative options, including non-host status, are increasingly being adopted (Liquido et al. 1995; Aluja et al. 2004; Follett & Neven 2006; Follett & Hennessey 2007; Pringle et al. 2015). Pringle et al. (2015) indicated that there are no definitions of host status of fruit specifically for tortricid pests, but referred to the following definitions that Aluja & Mangan (2008) applied to host status for Tephritidae: a natural host is one that is infested under totally natural field conditions. A non-natural host (or conditional host) is not known to be infested under natural field conditions, but there is experimental evidence that it can be infested and produce reproductive adults under laboratory (artificial) conditions. A non-host is one in which development cannot be completed. Pringle et al. (2015) also applied the following definitions provided by NAPPO (2008): a conditional host may be a host or non-host depending on suitability of conditions (e.g. stage of maturity, other physiological conditions or physical conditions), whereas a natural non-host does not become infested in nature. Most importantly, Pringle et al. (2015) followed NAPPO (2008) in its guidelines on determination of host status from natural infestation by evaluating infestation during the export harvest season, as a mandatory requirement in determining host status for phytosanitary purposes, regardless of data from field cage, greenhouse or laboratory trials. This approach to establishing host status was adopted by Armstrong (1991), who declared Sharwil avocados non-hosts (when attached to the tree) for oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), and Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), after inspection of 114 000 fruit