Combined Sewer Research Articles

Application of Real-Time Control and Source Control Solutions to Reduce Combined Sewer Overflows: A Review of Approaches and Performances

Application of Real-Time Control and Source Control Solutions to Reduce Combined Sewer Overflows: A Review of Approaches and Performances

Editorial: Plugging the data gap to enhance standardization in monitoring combined sewer overflows

Editorial: Plugging the data gap to enhance standardization in monitoring combined sewer overflows

Global metagenomic survey identifies sewage-derived hgcAB+ microorganisms as key contributors to riverine methylmercury production

Methylmercury (MeHg) in aquatic systems poses a serious public health risk through bioaccumulation in the aquatic food web. In recent years, MeHg has been observed to increase to concerning levels globally in rivers near cities; however, the causes of this increase are not well understood. Here, we demonstrate the significant role of sewage contamination by analyzing over 1,300 publicly available metagenomes in urban rivers worldwide, and conducting experiments with water samples across China. We find that sewage contamination significantly increases the abundance of mercury (Hg)-methylating microorganisms in urban rivers globally. This increase is primarily attributed to the high abundance of active Hg-methylating microorganisms in sewage, which migrate to rivers via direct discharge or combined sewer overflows (CSOs), becoming key contributors to elevated riverine MeHg levels. Our findings underscore the importance of effectively eliminating Hg-methylating microorganisms from sewage to mitigate the public health risks associated with MeHg in urban rivers.

Application of time series and multivariate statistical models for water quality assessment and pollution source apportionment in an Urban River, New Jersey, USA.

Water quality monitoring reveals changing trends in the environmental condition of aquatic systems, elucidates the prevailing factors impacting a water body, and facilitates science-backed policymaking. A 2020 hiatus in water quality data tracking in the Lower Passaic River (LPR), New Jersey, has created a 5-year information gap. To gain insight into the LPR water quality status during this lag period and ahead, water quality indices computed with 16-year historical data available for 12 physical, chemical, nutrient, and microbiological parameters were used to predict water quality between 2020 and 2025 using seasonal autoregressive moving average (ARIMA) models. Average water quality ranged from good to very poor (34 ≤ µWQI ≤ 95), with noticeable spatial and seasonal variations detected in the historical and predicted data. Pollution source tracking with the positive matrix factorization (PMF) model yielded significant R2 values (0.9 < R2 ≤ 1) for the input parameters and revealed four major LPR pollution factors, i.e., combined sewer systems, surface runoff, tide-influenced sediment resuspension, and industrial wastewater with pollution contribution rates of 23-30.2% in the upstream and downstream study areas. Significant correlation of toxic metals, nutrients, and sewage indicators suggest similarities in their sources.

Retrofitting sustainable drainage systems in UK schools: assessing the impacts and challenges

Sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) mimic natural processes to manage stormwater runoff close to its source, encouraging infiltration, attenuation and passive treatment. SuDS can be used to mitigate flooding and provide increased climate resilience while simultaneously delivering amenity, biodiversity and economic benefits to local communities. Retrofitting SuDS is a complex process requiring a detailed understanding of localised and catchment-wide drainage issues, and necessitates extensive buy-in from multiple stakeholders. Mutual understanding and recognition of the benefits of SuDS retrofit opportunities is critical to their implementation and success. This paper appraises the key benefits and challenges of SuDS retrofit within schools. A qualitative and quantitative assessment using case studies from over 50 completed SuDS retrofit projects within schools across the UK, for a variety of clients, was conducted. Through implementation of these solutions, hydraulic models have demonstrated a reduction in peak flow rates of up to 87%, providing flood alleviation to the schools’ wider catchments and demonstration that SuDS can be used to provide reductions to combined sewer overflow spills. Barriers to implementation may be minimised by ensuring a client’s aims are fully understood and achievable, combined with a focus on stakeholder engagement throughout the decision-making process.

Capacity Assessment of a Combined Sewer Network under Different Weather Conditions: Using Nature-Based Solutions to Increase Resilience

Severe weather conditions and urban intensification are key factors affecting the response of combined sewer systems, especially during storm events. In this regard, the capacity assessment of combined sewer networks under the impact of rainfall storm events of different return periods was the focus of this work. The selected case study area was a mixed-use catchment in the city centre of Thessaloniki, Greece. The hydraulic performance of the examined sewer network was assessed using an InfoWorks ICM model. The results indicated that mitigation strategies, such as the application of nature-based solutions (NBSs) or low-impact developments (LIDs) are considered essential for controlling combined sewer overflows. A multicriteria analysis was conducted to select the most appropriate NBSs/LIDs to be located in the study area to enhance the system’s capacity. The results of this multicriteria analysis were used to propose a combined sewer overflow mitigation scenario, based on the installation of green roofs, as the most highly ranked solution in the analysis performed. Incorporating the proposed NBS/LID in the hydrologic-hydraulic model significantly increased the performance of the studied combined sewer network.

Optimizing the Activation of WWTP Wet-Weather Operation Using Radar-Based Flow and Volume Forecasting with the Relative Economic Value (REV) Approach

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) connected to combined sewer systems must cope with high flows during wet-weather conditions, often leading to bypass and thus pollution of water bodies. Radar rainfall forecasts coupled with a rainfall-runoff model provides flow and volume forecasts that can be used for deciding when to switch from normal to wet-weather operation, which temporarily allows for higher inflow. However, forecasts are by definition uncertain and may lead to potential mismanagement, e.g., false alarms and misses. Our study focused on two years of operational data from the Damhuså sewer catchment and WWTP. We used the Relative Economic Value (REV) framework to optimize the control parameters of a baseline control strategy (thresholds on flow measurements and radar flow prognosis) and to test new control strategies based on volume instead of flow thresholds. We investigated two situations with different objective functions, considering higher negative impact from misses than false alarms and vice versa, and obtained in both cases a reduction of the rate of false alarms, higher flow thresholds and lower bypass compared to the baseline control. We also assess a new control strategy that employs thresholds of predicted accumulated volume instead of predicted flow and achieved even better results.

Sewage leakage challenges urban wastewater management as evidenced by the Yangtze River basin of China

Sewage leakage, including uncollected, collected but exfiltrated, and collected but discharged with stormwater in combined sewer overflows, becomes a key challenge to clean water around the world. This study proposed a mass balance model to quantify sewage leakage and analyzed its influencing factors. Approximately 56% (53%–59%) of domestic total nitrogen loads in the Yangtze River basin of China leak out without treatment, two-thirds are exfiltrated or overflowed, significantly impacting receiving water quality. Cities with higher precipitation have greater leakage, indicating overflows are important. Pipe density has limited impact, showing higher importance of pipe quality over quantity. The per capita leakage rate first increases with city size and then decreases, showing the economies of scale. Yet uneven distribution of population and economy within megacities leads to greater leakage. Hence, separated sewage systems of rainwater and wastewater, regular maintenance and adapting centralized and decentralized systems are recommended, tailored to city-specific leakage characteristics.

The impact of blue-green infrastructure on trace contaminants: A catchment-wide assessment

Blue-green infrastructure (BGI) reduce urban combined sewer overflows (CSOs) and stormwater outlets (SWOs). However, most conventional BGI are not designed to remove trace organic contaminants. Little is known about the potential of conventional BGI to improve surface water quality by reducing the discharge of trace organic contaminants. We derived wash-off loads for street runoff (6PPD-q, DPG, and HMMM), construction materials (diuron), and wastewater-derived contaminants (diclofenac) based on measurements in the combined sewer system. Subsequently, the performance of four BGI types (bioretention cells, green roofs, porous pavements, and urban wetlands) to reduce the discharge of trace organic contaminants via SWOs and CSOs was quantified with a hydrodynamic SWMM model. Moreover, the catchment-wide impact of SWOs and CSOs on surface water was assessed using risk quotients. We found that the annually discharged load can be considerably reduced by implementing BGI. Among the studied BGI types, bioretention cells are the most effective, with a load reduction of up to 80% to surface waters, mainly due to a larger suitable implementation area and a substantial stormwater infiltration. BGI implemented in the separate sewer system are more effective in reducing stormwater contaminant loads than BGI in the combined system. The assessment of the risk quotient in the surface water showed that the concentrations during SWO and CSO discharges exceed the acute environmental threshold in the surface water for 6PPD-q, DPG, diuron, and diclofenac during several events. The implementation of BGI reduced the hours of exceeded risk quotient in the surface water by 93% for bioretention cells. These findings underscore the need for a catchment-wide assessment of future BGI implementations to quantify, manage, and mitigate the impacts of urban pollution.

Assessment of wastewater ecotoxicity in a large hybrid sewer system in Lodz (Poland)

ABSTRACT Municipal wastewater may contain toxic substances that have a negative impact on biological treatment processes and receiving waters. This paper presents the wastewater toxicity test results from the Lodz hybrid sewage system. Wastewater is discharged to surface waters through a treatment plant, but also during wet weather, partially without treatment by combined sewer overflows. The research was carried out using the ToxTrakTM method with the use of the microbial community of activated sludge from the wastewater treatment plant in Lodz. The median toxicity, expressed as the degree of inhibition, ranged from 16.0% to 30.7%, but sometimes exceeded 50%. Higher toxicity was observed in wet weather than in dry weather. Seasonal variability was found but typical daily variability was not observed. In the case of sewage samples with the degree of inhibition above 40%, a significant correlation was found with chromium concentration and non-ionic surfactants (Pearson’s coefficient correlation above 0.7).

Phosphorus removal in surface flow treatment wetlands for domestic wastewater treatment: Global experiences, opportunities, and challenges

Treatment Wetlands (TWs) are widely used for the treatment of domestic wastewater, with an increasing emphasis on provision of multiple co-benefits. However, concerns remain regarding achieving stringent phosphorus (P) discharge limits, system robustness and resilience, and associated guidance on system design and operation. Typically, where P removal is intended with a passive TW, surface flow (SF) systems are the chosen design type. This study analysed long-term monitoring datasets (2–30 years) from 85 full-scale SF TWs (25 m2 to 487 ha) treating domestic sewage with the influent load ranging from 2.17 to 54,779 m3/d, including secondary treatment, tertiary treatment, and combined sewer overflows treatment. The results showed median percentage removals of total P (TP) and orthophosphate (Ortho P) of 28% and 31%, respectively. Additionally, median areal mass removal rates were 5.13 and 2.87 gP/m2/yr, respectively. For tertiary SF TWs without targeted upstream P removal, 80% of the 44 systems achieved ≤3 mg/L annual average effluent total P. Tertiary SF TWs with targeted upstream P removal demonstrated high robustness, delivering stable effluent TP < 0.35 mg/L. Seasonality in removal achieved was absent from 85% of sites, with 95% of all systems demonstrating stable annual average effluent TP concentrations for up to a 30-year period. Only two out of 32 systems showed a significant increase in effluent TP concentration after the initial year and remained stable thereafter. The impact of different liner types on water infiltration, cost, and carbon footprint were analysed to quantify the impact of these commonly cited barriers to implementation of SF TW for P removal. The use of PVC enclosed between geotextile gave the lowest additional cost and carbon footprint associated with lining SF TWs. Whilst the P-k-C* model is considered the best practice for sizing SF TWs to achieve design pollutant reductions, it should be used with caution with further studies needed to more comprehensively understand the key design parameters and relationships that determine P removal performance in order to reliably predict effluent quality.

Microplastic removal and risk assessment framework in a constructed wetland for the treatment of combined sewer overflows

Combined sewer overflows (CSOs) release a significant amount of pollutants, including microplastics (MPs), due to the discharge of untreated water into receiving water bodies. Constructed Wetlands (CWs) offer a promising strategy for CSO treatment and have recently attracted attention as a potential solution for MP mitigation. Nevertheless, limited research on MP dynamics within CSO events and MP removal performance in full-scale CW systems poses a barrier to this frontier of application. This research aims to address both these knowledge gaps, representing the first investigation of a multi-stage CSO-CW for MP removal. The study presents one year of seasonal data from the CSO-CW upstream of the WWTP in Carimate (Italy), evaluating the correlation of MP abundance with different water quality/quantity parameters and associated ecological risks. The results show a clear trend in MP abundance, which increases with rainfall intensity. The strong correlation between MP concentration, flow rate, and total suspended solids (TSS) validates the first flush phenomenon hypothesis and its impact on MP release during CSOs. Chemical characterization identifies acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), polyethylene (PE), and polypropylene (PP) as predominant polymers. The first vertical subsurface flow (VF) stage showed removal rates ranging from 40 % to 77 %. However, the unexpected increase in MP concentrations after the second free water surface (FWS) stage suggests the stochasticity of CSO events and the different hydraulic characteristics of the CW units have diverse effects on MP retention. These data confirm filtration as the main retention mechanism for MP within CW systems. The MP ecological risk assessment indicates a high-risk category for most of the water samples, mainly related to the frequent presence of ABS fragments. The results contribute to the current understanding of MPs released by CSOs and provide insights into the performance of different treatment units within a large-scale CSO-CW system, suggesting the requirement for further attention.

Modelling an urban wastewater system via a space–time multivariate calibration to understand and improve water bodies quality

ABSTRACT The European Water Framework Directive requires good quality status for water bodies remaining solely attainable through a global approach. Urban wastewater integrated modelling is a promising tool for this purpose. However, certain barriers still hinder its application, such as the significant amount of data required and specifically in the sewer system, the issues with data quality or the monitoring and maintenance costs. This study develops an integrated model for Dijon Metropole in France using multiple hydraulic and quality data sources (e.g. sensors, analysers, laboratory measurements) and calibration criteria. The results show that long-term trends can be predicted for hydraulic and quality variables. The scenarios demonstrate that combined sewer overflows are responsible for most of the anoxic and ammonium high concentration periods in the rivers during rain events compared to the Water Resources Recovery Facility (WRRF). Therefore, adding storm tanks in the wastewater system will reduce stress on aquatic organisms during rainfall events. Reducing WRRF discharge during wet weather can also reduce the average and percentile of ammonium in the river. These results indicate that strategies should be adapted depending on the water quality objective (biological and/or physico-chemical) and the sensitivity of the organisms present in the river.

Impact of forced aeration on vertical flow treatment wetland performances for combined sewer overflow

Combined Sewer Overflow Treatment Wetlands (CSO wetlands) are designed to remove pollutants under stochastic events with variable hydraulic loads. Upgrading them with forced aeration promises to increase the effectiveness and resilience of the treatment. We have tested two vertical CSO wetlands with forced aeration (CSOa and CSOb) to understand the effects of aeration on CSO treatment. Both filter beds have 0.95 and 0.80 m of saturated layer. CSOa uses gravel as top filtering layer, while CSOb utilizes sand and an additional transition layer. Tracer tests were conducted in both filters with and without aeration to assess the impact of aeration on hydraulic performance. CSOa operated with four different aeration conditions, with the optimal condition tested on both filters for comparison. Samples were taken for analysis of global parameters and the redox potential was monitored online. In the tracer test, CSOa allowed to observe the mixing impact of aeration, which avoids any preferential path when influent entered the filter. The addition of a sand layer at the surface (CSOb) allows for a more even distribution of water on the top, which limits preferential flows when aeration is off. In both filters, the results showed that aeration increased the residence time and mixing degree (NTIS <3). Testing different aeration strategies revealed the dependence of dissolved pollutant removal on oxygen supply. In CSOa, the median outlet concentration varied from 23 to 6.4 mg.L−1 in TSS, 153 to 32 mg.L−1 total COD (CODt), 124 to 20 mg.L−1 soluble COD (CODs) and 5 to 2.5 mg.L−1 NH4-N according to aeration strategy. The lower outlet concentrations were always under the highest aeration condition. Under the optimal condition (75 min on/15 min off), median removal of CSOa was 97% TSS, 85% CODt, 78% CODs and 75% NH4-N. Besides COD and TSS, outlet concentration and removal efficiency did not significantly differ between CSOa and CSOb. Pollutant removal demonstrated a linear correlation with organic surface load. Overall, forced aeration in CSO-TW distinctly affected filter dynamics and improved its performance.

Can blue–green infrastructure counteract the effects of climate change on combined sewer overflows? Study of a swiss catchment

Abstract Combined sewer overflows (CSOs), the discharge of untreated sewage mixed with stormwater into surface waters, are expected to increase under climate change as a result of more extreme rainfall. Blue–green infrastructure (BGI), such as bioretention cells and porous pavements, can help to reduce the amount of stormwater entering combined sewer systems, thus reducing CSO discharge. However, our understanding of the potential for BGI to mitigate CSOs in a future climate is still lacking, as performance is typically evaluated for individual BGI elements with fixed implementation areas under historical climate conditions or limited future scenarios. In response, this study investigates the performance of 30 combinations of BGI elements and implementation rates to prevent increases in CSOs under a range of future climate scenarios in an urban catchment near Zurich, Switzerland. Median total annual rainfall, projected to increase by as much as 46%, could double the median annual CSO volume and increase median annual CSO frequency by up to 52%. Four BGI combinations that include bioretention cells show the most promise to prevent increases in CSO volume and frequency in a future climate; and given the diverse responses of BGI elements to distinct rainfall patterns, their combinations can enhance CSO discharge reduction across varying climate patterns. BGI is also likely to become more cost-effective under future climatic conditions as projected increases in total rainfall led to larger CSO volume reductions obtained through BGI. However, there is a trade-off between robustness to climate change and cost-effectiveness, since CSO volume reduction capacity scales with BGI implementation rate but cost-effectiveness declines. Our study illustrates the effectiveness of various BGI combinations to prevent increases in CSOs in a future climate, calling for a range of BGI elements and implementation areas to be considered for urban drainage adaptation.

Occurrence of specific pollutants in a mixture of sewage and rainwater from an urbanized area

Urban runoff appears to be a pathway for transferring new emerging pollutants from land-based sources to the aquatic environment. This paper aimed to identify and describe the groups of pollutants present in rainwater surface runoff as well as their mixture with wastewater in the combined sewer system from urbanized catchments and to determine the correlations between these pollutants. Four leading groups of new emerging pollutants have been identified that may be present in rainwater and municipal wastewater mixtures. The samples were tested for microplastics, phthalic acid esters, pesticides, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as well as basic parameters. The pilot site was Słupsk (northwestern Poland). We conducted nine sampling campaigns at three points. The results of the present study revealed that (i) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were not present in the tested samples; (ii) the selected organochlorine pesticides were detected during one campaign in the dry season and therefore were not of critical importance; (iii) out of the 11 analyzed phthalic acid esters, five selected substances released from commonly used plastic products were present; and (iv) the number of microplastics contained in the tested samples ranged from 1,400 to 14,036 pcs/L and even occurred during pure rainfall.

Pollution loads in the middle-lower Yangtze river by coupling water quality models with machine learning

Pollution control and environmental protection of the Yangtze River have received major attention in China. However, modeling the river's pollution load remains challenging due to limited monitoring and unclear spatiotemporal distribution of pollution sources. Specifically, anthropogenic activities’ contribution to the pollution have been underestimated in previous research. Here, we coupled a hydrodynamic-based water quality (HWQ) model with a machine learning (ML) model, namely attention-based Gated Recurrent Unit, to decipher the daily pollution loads (i.e., chemical oxygen demand, COD; total phosphorus, TP) and their sources in the Middle-Lower Yangtze River from 2014 to 2018. The coupled HWQ-ML model outperformed the standalone ML model with KGE values ranging 0.77–0.91 for COD and 0.47–0.64 for TP, while also reducing parameter uncertainty. When examining the relative contributions at the Middle Yangtze River Hankou cross-section, we observed that the main stream and tributaries, lateral anthropogenic discharges, and parameter uncertainty contributed 15, 66, and 19% to COD, and 58, 35, and 7% to TP, respectively. For the Lower Yangtze River Datong cross-section, the contributions were 6, 69, and 25% for COD and 41, 42, and 17% for TP. According to the attention weights of the coupled model, the primary drivers of lateral anthropogenic pollution sources, in descending order of importance, were temperature, date, and precipitation, reflecting seasonal pollution discharge, industrial effluent, and first flush effect and combined sewer overflows, respectively. This study emphasizes the synergy between physical modeling and machine learning, offering new insights into pollution load dynamics in the Yangtze River.

Effect-directed analysis of endocrine and neurotoxic effects in stormwater depending discharges

The investigation of pollutant inputs via stormwater runoff and subsequent effects in receiving waters is becoming increasingly urgent in view of climate change with accompanying extreme weather situations such as heavy rainfall events. In this study, two sampling areas, one urban and one rural but dominated by a highway, were investigated using effect-directed analysis to identify endocrine and neurotoxic effects and potentially responsible substances in stormwater structures and receiving waters. For this purpose, a transgenic yeast cell assay for the simultaneous detection of estrogenic, androgenic, and progestogenic effects (YMEES) was performed directly on high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) plates. Concomitantly, estrogens were analyzed by GC–MS/MS and other micropollutants typical for wastewater and stormwater by LC-MS/MS. Discharges from the combined sewer overflow (CSO) contribute a large portion of the endocrine load to the studied water body, even surpassing the load from a nearby wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). An effect pattern similar to the CSO sample was shown in the receiving water after the CSO with lower intensities, consisting of an estrogenic, androgenic, and progestogenic effect. In contrast, after the WWTP, only one estrogenic effect with a lower intensity was detected. Concentrations of E1, 17α-E2, 17β-E2, EE2, and E3 in the CSO sample were 2000, 410, 1100, 560, and 2700 pg/L, respectively. HPTLC-YMEES and GC–MS/MS complement each other very well and help to elucidate endocrine stresses. An Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory effect could not be assigned to a causative compound by suspect and non-target analysis using LC-HRMS. However, the workflow showed how information from HPTLC separation, effect-based methods, and other meta-information on the sampling area and substance properties can contribute to an identification of effect-responsible substances. Overall, the study demonstrated that effect-based methods in combination with HPTLC and instrumental analysis can be implemented to investigate pollution by stormwater run-off particularly regarding heavy rain events due to climate change.

Urban Stormwater Management: A Sustainable Approach

Climate change is impacting urban areas, especially through extreme rainfall that stresses conventional water management systems. Rainwater resulting from impervious runoffs, stormwater leads to an increase in the amount of wastewater that requires treatment and an overflow of the combined sewer system. Therefore, untreated wastewater is released into the surroundings or, in some cases, causes damage to urban systems. Nevertheless, many cities in the world are in the process of establishing a sustainable approach to urban water management. Sustainable stormwater management practices are essential for overcoming various environmental challenges and promoting community sustainability and resilience. The purpose of this paper is to communicate Oslo’s success in implementing sustainable stormwater management in urban areas. By analyzing successful cases, researchers may be able to record patterns that offer potential answers to the stormwater management challenge. The present case study presents an approach that can enlighten urban planners and policymakers about the potential outcomes of sustainable stormwater management under the conditions presented.

Impacts of projected future changes in precipitation on wastewater treatment plant influent volumes connected by combined sewer collection systems

Climate change induced precipitation changes can impact wastewater influent volumes and, in turn, the design and operation of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). As influent volumes approach or exceeds the design capacity of the WWTP, the likelihood of poor treatment or untreated discharges that result in environmental damage, increases. To date, there has been a lack of research analysing the impact changes in precipitation may have on influent volumes of WWTPs with combined sewerage systems. This study leverages data driven models of observed precipitation and influent volumes for 14 Irish WWTPs with combined sewerage systems, to project monthly wastewater influent volumes in 2041 – 2060 using Ireland’s most up-to-date high resolution multi-model RCM projections under RCPs 4.5 and 8.5. With changing monthly average daily precipitation, influent volumes for all the WWTPs demonstrated maximum decreases during summer months for both RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5. Winter months showed increasing trends in influent volumes, particularly under RCP 8.5. The results indicate that with projected increase in high and very high precipitation days in Ireland (under CMIP5), the return periods for influent volumes that exceed the hydraulic capacity of 5 of the WWTPs will reduce. This work also presents a framework by which newer high-resolution downscaled climate models can be used to developed updated impact analysis of changing rainfall patterns on wastewater. It likely that wastewater treatment infrastructure will need to adapt to more intense precipitation to minimise the occurrence of combined sewer overflows.