Combat Sports Athletes Research Articles

Athletes’ understanding of concussion – uncertainty, certainty and the ‘expert’ on the street

ABSTRACT Several scholars have examined the uncertainties faced by sport medicine professionals surrounding their diagnosis, treatment and management of concussion. Yet, recent evidence suggests that combat sport athletes seem to have ‘reasonably good concussion knowledge’. How, then, have athletes gained such an understanding when medical professionals have not? We argue that this logical inconsistency is most likely an artefact of inflexible, ‘snapshot’ methodological procedures rather than a nuanced representation of athletes’ actual understanding and experiences of concussion. We address this issue by employing immersive research strategies to provide epistemological space for complexities, contradictions and incoherencies that lie within fighters’ understanding of such experiences to come to the fore. In so doing, we demonstrate the interdependence between notions of ‘uncertainty’ and ‘certainty’ in fighters’ knowledge about concussion. Further to this, we propose the idea of ‘the expert on the street’ to explain the ways in which fighters gained lay medical certainty and highlight the potential problems that are imbedded within this process. To conclude, we suggest that inflexible, ‘snapshot’ methods will often produce overly reductive answers which do little to support the generation of the solutions which are needed to tackle concussion in sport.

A Sociological Analysis of the Performance and Subjective Well-being of Elite Sports Players in China

Abstract We were inspired by the market transition theory to investigate the relationship between elite sports players’ performance, subjective well-being and demographic characteristics with the lens of Weberian concept of instrumental rationality (zweckrational). This cross-sectional study was recruited 144 (Mage = 18.96, sd = 3.129) professional athletes in gymnastics, combat sports (including boxing, taekwondo, weightlifting, judo and wrestling), soccer, swimming and wushu (Chinese martial arts), in a government-operated sports institution in China. A hierarchical regression analysis was implemented to observe the relationship between the following variables, the subjective well-being, instrumental factors and other demographic factors, including gender, age, educational level, number of years on professional team and injury record. The results show that the bonus incentive system is the most important predictor of the athletes’ performance. We argue that under the context of China’s market transition, the lens of instrumental rationality can shed light on how the means-end calculations of elite athletes affect their sports performance.

Profiling Combat Sports Athletes: Competitive History and Outcomes According to Sports Type and Current Level of Competition

BackgroundThis study aimed to investigate the competitive history (the age when training and competing started), training habits and patterns of winning and losing of competitive combat sports athletes across different combat sports as well as the level of competition (e.g. amateurs, state-level and elite).MethodsCompetitors (N = 298) from mixed martial arts (MMA), Muay Thai/kickboxing, boxing, Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ), wrestling, judo and traditional striking sports (TSS) completed an online questionnaire.ResultsMost athletes began competing in their mid-teenage years and competing soon after except for wrestlers who began earlier. Elite athletes began training earlier than amateurs (13.75 ± 7.75 years and 16.2 ± 7.45 years, p<0.01, respectively). Training habits were similar across sports (~4 combat and ~3 non-combat training sessions per week), except for MMA and wrestling which did more combat sports-specific training than Judo and TSS. Wrestlers did more non-combat sports-specific training than all other sports. Elite athletes completed more combat sessions per week than their lower-level contemporaries (4.64 ± 2.49 and 3.9 ± 1.44, p=0.01, respectively). Patterns of winning or losing were consistent across sports, except for amateur athletes who were more likely to report all their victories by points and none of their victories by submission or pin. Additionally, elite athletes are less likely to report none of their victories coming by knockout.ConclusionsResults may indicate that finishing ability is a key distinguisher of competitive level. The present study provides normative data for training and competing habits for athletes, support staff and regulators to use.

Aggression Dimensions Among Athletes Practising Martial Arts and Combat Sports.

Purpose: The main aim of the research was to analyse aggression dimensions among athletes practising martial arts and combat sports.Material and Methods: There were 219 respondents. The Buss and Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) in the Polish adaptation by Siekierka was applied.Results: Martial arts apprentices turned out to present a statistically significantly lower level of hostility (p < 0.001) and of the general aggression index (p = 0.04) than combat sports athletes. It turned out that lower level of aggression was noted in female participants (physical aggression (p < 0.001), verbal aggression (p = 0.004), hostility (p < 0.001), and the general aggression index (p < 0.001). Analysis revealed that the training experience and the training rank did not differentiated the level of the respondents' particular aggression dimensions.Conclusions: It would be advisable to perform parallel analyses in other areas of Poland and take into account the respondents' education and place of residence.

Intensive Sports Nutrition Program Improving Body Composition and Energy Intake among Elite Combat Sport Athletes

ABSTRAK Latar Belakang :Gizi olahraga merupakan aspek penting dalam mengatur asupan makanan dan komposisi tubuh untuk mencapai performa yang optimal. Studi epidemiologis menunjukkan sebagian besar asupan atlet tidak adekuat dan dapat mempengaruhi komposisi tubuh yang ideal.Tujuan :Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis pengaruh pendampingan gizi olahraga terhadap komposisi tubuh dan asupan energi atlet bela diri.Metode :Pendampingan gizi intensif dilakukan selama empat bulan (Juni- September 2019). Pengukuran komposisi tubuh dilakukan 2 kali, yakni sebelum dan sesudah intervensi dengan menganalisis hasil pengukuran dari alat BIA (Bio Impadance Analyzer) tipe MBCA (Medical Body Compotiton Analyzer) 515/514 merk seca©. Variabel yang dianalisis diantaranya, total asupan kalori sehari diukur menggunakan instrumen Recall-24 jam, komposisi tubuh diukur dengan alat BIA yakni Fat Mass (FM), Fat Free Mass (FFM) dan Skeletal Muscle Mass (SMM). Pendampingan gizi dilakukan oleh ahli gizi olahraga yang mengunjungi 24 responden setiap bulan dan memberikan materi pendidikan gizi, memberikan makanan sehat dan memberikan konseling permasalahan gizi atlet.Hasil : Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan adanya peningkatan secara signifikan pada asupan energi total (1496,2±654,4 menjadi 1688,5±679,8, p= 0,002). Pada komposisi tubuh terjadi peningkatan pada FFM dan SMM yakni (56,57 ± 9,91 kg vs 57,01 ± 9,53, p = 0,032) dan (27,49 ± 5,58 vs 27,75 ± 5,31, p = 0,005) dan tidak ada perbedaan signifikan dalam variabel FM.Kesimpulan : Kesimpulan dari percobaan ini adalah pendampingan gizi secara intensif dapat meningkatkan asupan energi total, FFM dan SMM pada atlet bela diri. Kata Kunci : Komposisi tubuh, pendampingan gizi, asupan energiABSTRACTBackground :Sports nutrition is very urgent to improve nutrition knowledge, dietary intake and body composition to achieve an optimum athletic performance. Epidemiological studies showed most athletes lack of getting adequate intake and maintaining an ideal body composition.Objective :This study aims to analyze the effect of sport nutrition education on body composition and energy intake among elite combat sport athletes.Methods :Intensive sport nutrition was conducted for four months June until September 2019. Body composition was assessed for 2 times, before and after intervention using bioelectric impedance analysis (BIA), with seca© brand 515/514 type of stainless steel electrodes.Measurement of energy intake with recall 24 hours before and after the intervention. The variables studied were Fat Mass (FM), Fat Free Mass (FFM), Skeletal Muscle Mass (SMM) and energy intake.The professional sport nutritionist and dietitians visited 24 subjects every month by teaching nutrition education, bringing the healthy food, and facilitating the counseling about sport nutrition.Result :Energy intake increased significantly (1496,2±654,4 to 1688,5±679,8, p= 0,002). FFM and SMM increased significantly pre to post (56.57±9.91 kg vs 57.01±9.53, p=0.032) and (27.49±5.58 vs 27.75±5.31, p=0.005) respectively, meanwhile no significant differences in FM variable.Conclusion : Our findings indicate that intensive sport nutritionimproved energy intake, FFM and SMM among elite combat sport athletes. Keywords : Body compotition, sport nutririon education, energy intake

Exploratory Analysis of the Relationship between Social Identification and Testosterone Reactivity to Vicarious Combat.

Testosterone (T) fluctuates in response to competitive social interactions, with the direction of change typically depending on factors such as contest outcome. Watching a competition may be sufficient to activate T among fans and others who are invested in the outcome. This study explores the change in T associated with vicarious experiences of competition among combat sport athletes viewing a teammate win or lose and assesses how individual differences in social identification with one's team relates to these patterns of T reactivity. Twenty-six male combat athletes completed a social identity questionnaire on a neutral day. Later, salivary samples (assayed for T) were obtained before and after athletes viewed a video of a teammate engaged in a formal contest. T reactivity to viewing a teammate compete varied among participants in both the magnitude and direction of change, independent of contest outcome. Individual differences in cognitive centrality, a core feature of social identification, showed a strong positive relationship with T reactivity, particularly if their teammate won. Initial findings suggest that dominance-linked androgen responses associated with watching a teammate win a competition might depend on the belief that team membership is central to one's own identity. These exploratory results in a small sample of combat athletes should be interpreted with caution. Uncovering the role of social group dynamics in influencing T responses to competition is particularly important in light of the evolutionary history of coalitional combat in humans.

Effects of Rapid Weight Loss on Kidney Function in Combat Sport Athletes.

Even though scientific literature shows numerous heath complications and performance decrements associated with rapid weight loss (RWL), its prevalence remains exceedingly high across various combat sports. The aim of this study was to thoroughly search the existing literature to explore the influence of RWL on kidney function in Olympic and non-Olympic combat sport athletes. PubMed and Web of Science were searched for the relevant studies. Only original articles published from 2005 onwards, written in English, that included healthy males and females who prompted ~5% weight loss within a week or less, were included in the study. Retrieved studies showed that creatinine, blood urea nitrogen and urine specific gravity values were significantly increased after RWL in the majority of the included studies. This observation indicates that RWL caused dehydration and subsequent acute kidney damage despite various degrees of weight lost during the RWL phase, which can lead to adverse events in other body systems. Alternative methods of weight reduction that prioritize athletes’ health should be considered.

Altered Vestibular Balance Function in Combat Sport Athletes.

Combat sports pose a risk for accumulative injuries to the nervous system, yet fighters have remained an understudied population. Here, our purpose was to determine whether repetitive blows to the head have an effect on vestibular balance reflexes in combat sports athletes. We compared lower-limb muscle responses evoked with electrical vestibular stimuluation (EVS) between fighters (boxing/muay thai) and non-fighter controls. Each participant received stochastic vestibular stimulation (0-25 Hz, ±3 mA) over their mastoid processes while they stood relaxed with their head to the left or right. Surface electromyography was recorded from the medial gastrocnemius and soleus muscles bilaterally. Short and medium latency response (SLR/MLR) peaks were significantly delayed in the fighter group compared to controls. SLR and MLR peak amplitudes were also significantly lower in fighters. Fighter-estimated cumulative repetitive head impact (RHI) events demonstrated strong positive correlations with the timing of SLR and MLR peaks. Cumulative RHI events also negatively correlated with peak MLR amplitude and response gain at frequencies above 5 Hz. Our results provide evidence of a progressive vestibular impairment in combat sports athletes, potentially resulting from blows to the head accumulated in sparring practice and competitive bouts throughout their careers. Taken together, EVS-based vestibular assessments may provide a valuable clinical diagnostic tool and help better inform "return-to-play" and career-length decisions for not only combat sports athletes, but potentially other populations at risk of RHIs.

A Review of Striking Force in Full-Contact Combat Sport Athletes: Methods of Assessment

ABSTRACT With striking force playing such a critical role in the success of full-contact combat sports such as mixed martial arts, taekwondo, and boxing, coaches and scientists must be able to track this performance metric accurately and reliably. This review will cover practitioner understanding of key kinetic variables used in the assessment of striking important concepts relating to the validity, reliability, and reporting of meaningful performance changes in the assessment process, a critique of the methods used to monitor changes in striking forces, and provide practical recommendations for practitioners in the field. This understanding will help coaches and scientists assess and interpret the effectiveness of training.

Patterns of rapid weight loss in elite sambo athletes

BackgroundRapid weight loss (RWL) is commonly practiced in combat sports. Both magnitude and methods used to induce RWL are largely similar among combat sports, but currently, there is no data on RWL methodology used by sambo athletes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine RWL procedures sambo athletes apply to lose weight rapidly.MethodsThe sample consisted of 199 participants, of which 132 males and 67 females who participated in the World Sambo Championship 2020 held in Novi Sad, Serbia. Each participant received RWL questionnaire that was available in multiple languages, and every participant was instructed how to fill it out.ResultsAlmost 87% of sambo participants declared to have intentionally cut their weight prior to the competition, whereby 5.27 kg (SD: ±7.57) was lost. Gradual dieting, sauna use and skipping meals were the most dominant methods used to reduce weight prior to competition while more extreme methods of RWL such as the use of laxatives, diuretics, diet pills and vomiting were also implemented but by much smaller fragment of the participants involved.ConclusionsFindings from our study largely match with previously conducted RWL studies in terms of prevalence, magnitude and methods used by combat sport athletes, especially in judo and wrestling. Knowing the hazardous consequences of RWL, alternative methods of sustainable weight loss should be considered.

Rapid Weight Loss Habits before a Competition in Sambo Athletes.

Background: Like other combat sports, sambo has competition rules that divide athletes into categories based on gender, age and weight. Athletes in combat sports often resort to rapid weight loss (RWL) methods to be more competitive in lower weight categories and gain an advantage against lighter, smaller and weaker competitors. The aim of this study was to examine the methodology implemented by two different sambo age categories, junior and senior athletes, in order to attain RWL. Methods: The sample consisted of 103 male sambo elite athletes (seniors/juniors: age 28.5 ± 4.3/18.9 ± 0.8; height (m): 1.7 ± 0.1/1.8 ± 0.1; weight (kg): 76.3 ± 17.8/74.4 ± 16.3; BMI (kg/m2): 25.0 ± 3.8/23.7 ± 3.9) who completed a survey on RWL. Results: Athletes reported losing a mean of 5 kg starting approximately 12 days before a competition. The most common methodology reported by senior and junior sambo athletes was gradually increasing dieting, followed by sauna and plastic suit training. Less common methods adopted were laxatives, diuretics, the use of diet pills and vomiting. There were significant group differences for sauna and diet pill ingestion. Coaches and parents are influential people in the lives of athletes concerning the weight loss strategy to be adopted. Conclusions: This study’s results unequivocally confirm the prevalent practice of RWL in both senior and junior sambo athletes. Although athletes prevalently chose “less harmful” methods, there is a need to inform parents and coaches of the risks and benefits of RWL.

Developing flexibility for combat sports athletes

The range of motion of a joint is extremely important in combat sports, especially when there is a need to execute a certain motor gesture with maximum range of movement, as in throwing techniques such as uchi-mata in judo, certain types of guards in Brazilian jiu-jitsu or the high kicks common in a variety of striking combat sports. Therefore, in this chapter, we will discuss the elements related to flexibility response during training sessions or combat sports competitions, flexibility tests commonly used for these athletes, and the monitoring and control of the evolution of flexibility in athletes. We will also present the means and methods used for the development of flexibility and longitudinal studies on the development of flexibility in combat sports athletes. Finally, this chapter supports based on the evidence the inclusion of flexibility development within training sessions is an important consideration to maximize performance and other physical capabilities that may be affected both acutely or in the long-term by flexibility.

Developing anaerobic power and capacity for combat sports athletes

This chapter describes the physiological responses associated with anaerobic power and capacity of combat sports athletes from different modalities (judo, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, wrestling, Olympic boxing, karate, and Muay Thai) during specific situations. Next, the most used evaluation methods for the control and monitoring of these variables are presented. Finally, based on longitudinal studies that evaluated the effects of anaerobic power and capacity training of combat sports athletes, the main training approaches are presented.

Developing strength-endurance for combat sports athletes

Strength-endurance is one of the trainable physical capacities that could determine the success in some combat sports and its inclusion is obligatory in the training periodization of high-level athletes. In striking combat sports, such as boxing and taekwondo, it seems likely that increases in dynamic strength-endurance improve the ability to execute combat movements repeatedly. On the other hand, grapplers need to develop high levels of strength-endurance because during the match much time is spent in grip dispute and the success in this phase may determine the possibility to execute scoring techniques. Furthermore, in mixed combat sports, where a combination of striking and grappling are required, athletes needs to have the capacity to maintain dynamic or static muscular actions during prolonged periods during the match, and the strength-endurance is one key element. Therefore, this chapter presents the strength-endurance requirements during the match, the specific tests for its evaluation, scientific evidence of longitudinal studies on the development of strength-endurance in combat sports athletes and the methods for its development.

Developing aerobic power and capacity for combat sports athletes

This chapter describes the physiological responses associated with aerobic power and capacity of combat sports athletes from different modalities (judo, Brazilian jiu-Jitsu, wrestling, Olympic boxing, taekwondo, karate and muay-thai) during specific and non-specific situations. Moreover, we describe the most used methods for the control and monitoring of these variables. Finally, the longitudinal studies that investigated the effects of aerobic power and capacity training for combat sports athletes are descripted.

Developing maximal strength for combat sports athletes

This chapter deals with historical aspects of strength training, contextualizing the relevance of strength training for combat sports to maximize the performance of grapplers, strikers, and mixed martial artists. Scientific articles were listed that presented data related to maximum strength in the leading research databases. Scientific evidence presented in official and simulated matches, and official competitions are presented. Likewise, longitudinal studies on the development of maximal strength in combat sports athletes, maximal strength tests for combat sports athletes (dynamic, isometric, and isokinetic tests), and reference for maximal strength (dynamic and isometric exercises) values in several exercises, as well as normative tables are presented. Another point approached was training prescription for muscle hypertrophy and maximal strength development (dynamic and isometric) for combat sports athletes.

Developing muscle power for combat sports athletes

In combat sports, the specificity of the training requires that the athlete improve all performance indicators associated with the match. For this reason, muscle power seems to be determinant during the application of the techniques that result in scores, specifically punches, kicks, elbows, knees, throwing techniques, transitions to the groundwork and some groundwork techniques and sometimes, the win match by knockout. Based in these information’s, the present chapter will approach items referring to the muscle power manifestation and monitoring, and to the training prescription of exercises for the grappling, striking and mixed combat sports.

Caffeine ingestion increases the upper-body intermittent dynamic strength endurance performance of combat sports athletes

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of caffeine ingestion on upper-body intermittent strength endurance performance of combat sports athletes. Using a double-blind and placebo-controlled crossover design, ten experienced judo and jiu-jitsu athletes performed an upper-body intermittent strength endurance protocol (four set of judogi dynamic strength endurance test, interspersed by 3-min recovery intervals) 60 min after ingesting either caffeine (5 mg·kg−1) or placebo. Compared with placebo condition, caffeine ingestion significantly increased the total number of repetitions (+ 7%, P = 0.04; d = 0.44) and the maximal isometric handgrip strength (+ 5%, P = 0.03, = 0.41). Rating of perceived exertion, heart rate and blood lactate concentration increased linearly throughout the test (P < 0.05), but without significant differences between caffeine and placebo conditions (P > 0.05). Caffeine ingestion improved the upper-body intermittent strength endurance performance and maximal isometric strength of combat sports athletes. This suggests that caffeine could help to maintain high levels of maximal handgrip and endurance strength in upper limbs, especially forearm muscles, which are responsible for maintaining the grip on the opponent’s judogi. Highlights Caffeine ingestion improved upper-body intermittent strength endurance of grappling athletes. Caffeine ingestion increased maximal isometric handgrip strength of grappling athletes. Heart rate, lactate concentration or rating of perceived exertion were not affected by caffeine ingestion. Our findings suggest that caffeine could help to maintain high levels of maximal handgrip and endurance strength in upper limbs, especially forearm muscles, which are responsible for maintaining the grip on the opponent's judogi.

The Relationship between Weight Cutting and the Female Athlete Triad in Combat Sport Athletes

Background: Females combat sport athletes are likely to partake in rapid weight reduction strategies prior to competitions. Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between weight cutting habits of female combat sport athletes and the risk of developing the female athlete triad. Methods: 102 female combat sport athletes (amateur=40; professional=62; 28.8±4.5y), competing in boxing (n=30), kickboxing (n=12), and mixed martial arts (n=60), completed two questionnaires. An adapted version of the Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire (RWLQ) was used to determine the severity of athletes’ weight cutting behaviors, and the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q) was used to determine female athlete triad risk. Data was analyzed to determine correlations between LEAF-Q and RWLQ scores along with weight cutting behaviors. Scores were also compared between competition level and combat sports. Results: The results of this study showed that 38% of female combat sport athletes were at risk of developing the female athlete triad. Significant correlation between RWLQ and LEAF-Q scores (p=0.013; r=0.244, r2=0.060) were noted. A significant difference (p=0.006) between the RWLQ scores of amateurs and professionals was also noted, with professionals engaging in more severe weight cutting behavior. Mixed martial artists reported the highest RWLQ and LEAF-Q scores, which were significantly greater than boxers. No other correlations between LEAF-Q and weight cutting behaviors were noted. Conclusion: Despite a small effect size (r²=0.060), the findings of this study demonstrate that more severe weight cutting behaviors may increase the female athlete triad risk among female combat sport athletes.

Genetic basis of elite combat sports athletes: a systematic review.

Each athlete’s innate talent is widely recognized as one of the important contributors to achievement in athletic performance, and genetic factors determine a significant portion of talent or traits. Advances in DNA sequencing technology allow us to discover specific genetic variants contributing to these traits in sports performance. The objective of this systematic review is to identify genes that may play a significant role in the performance of elite-level combat sports athletes. Through the review of 18 full-text articles, a total of 109 different polymorphisms were investigated in 14,313 participants (2,786 combat sports athletes, 8,969 non-athlete controls, 2,558 other sports athletes). Thirteen polymorphisms showed a significant difference between elite combat athletes and the control group, and consist of 8 (PPARA rs4253778, ACTN3 rs1815739, ACE rs4646994, CKM rs8111989, MCT1 rs1049434, FTO rs9939609, GABPβ1 rs7181866 and rs8031031) oriented to athletic performance and 5 (COMT rs4680, FEV rs860573, SLC6A2 rs2242446, HTR1B rs11568817, ADRA2A rs521674) focused on psychological traits including emotional and mental traits in combat sports athletes. In addition, a recent whole genome sequencing study identified 4 polymorphisms (KIF27 rs10125715, APC rs518013, TMEM229A rs7783359, LRRN3 rs80054135) associated with reaction time in wrestlers. However, it is not clearly identified which genes are linked explicitly with elite combat sports athletes and how they affect the elite athlete’s status or performance in combat sports. Hence, a greater number of candidate genes should be included in future studies to practically utilize the genetic information.