Color Characteristics Research Articles

Riverine microplastic discharge along the southern Black Sea coast of Türkiye

Abstract Rivers are critical pathways of microplastic (MP) pollution to marine environments, yet their contributions to the Black Sea remain understudied. This study evaluates the abundance and characteristics (polymer composition, shape, size, and color) of MPs discharged from 29 rivers flowing into the southern Black Sea. Using a plankton net with a 200 μm mesh size, samples were collected from river mouths, revealing an average MP abundance of 9.63±1.27 MP/m³, ranging from 1.03 to 29.8 MP/m³. Eastern Black Sea rivers exhibited significantly higher MP levels (11.0±1.57 MP/m³) compared to western rivers (5.15±1.25 MP/m³). Annual MP discharge to the Black Sea was estimated at 1.49×10¹¹ particles. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET, 59.3±2.66%), polyethylene (PE, 20.8±2.04%), and polypropylene (PP, 14.1±2.36%) were the most common polymers, with PET and PE being significantly dominant. MP sizes ranged predominantly between 200–1.000 μm, and fibers constituted the majority of shapes (64.1%), followed by fragments (28.3%). White (36.8±1.93%) and transparent (30.9±2.39%) MPs were the most prevalent colors. While no significant differences in MP characteristics were detected between basins (NMDS and ANOSIM), this study emphasizes rivers as major pathways for MP pollution in the Black Sea. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted mitigation strategies to safeguard marine ecosystems and biodiversity.

Effect of Starch And Propolis Films On Post-Harvest Conservation of Tommy Atkins Mango

Objective: Develop protective films of cornstarch incorporated with propolis extract to preserve Tommy Atkins mango post-harvest. Method: The fruits were immersed in eight coatings of different proportions of starch and propolis extract and stored for evaluation every 3 days for 15 days, at the Laboratory of Teaching and Research in Food Analysis of the University of Pernambuco, Petrolina Campus. To evaluate their quality, the following were determined: mass loss, pulp firmness, pH, titratable acidity, soluble solids, SST/ATT ratio, determination of ascorbic acid, moisture, and characteristics of skin color and appearance. The results were analyzed using Jamovi software. Results and Discussion: Pronounced effects were observed on firmness, weight loss, soluble solids, moisture, skin color and appearance. However, analyses of pH, total acidity and vitamin C showed no significant difference in the preservation of the quality of the mangoes. Furthermore, the treatment that best preserved the physical-chemical and sensory characteristics of the fruits was 5% starch added to 2.5% propolis extract, followed by coating with only 5% starch. Research Implications: The implications highlighted are discussed in food technology, covering solutions for sustainable agriculture, food conservation with the potential to provide food security, objectives present in the 2030 agenda. Originality: This study has an innovative approach. Its relevance is proven by the functionality of the film, which gives the fruit better quality, in addition to providing an economic, social and cultural impact for the region, benefiting the farmer, the domestic and foreign markets and the consumer.

Late-season source limitation practices to cope with climate change: delaying ripening and improving colour of Cabernet-Sauvignon grapes and wine in a hot and arid climate

The current rise in temperatures is hastening grape ripening, resulting in unbalanced wines with high alcohol content but poor colour, aroma and phenolic composition. Late-season canopy manipulation practices aimed at reducing the size of the photosynthetic apparatus after veraison have been shown to delay ripening in cooler climates. However, these methods have not directly been compared in regions with high irradiance and temperature, where berry composition is negatively affected by late fruit exposure. In this two-year Cabernet-Sauvignon trial, we compared the application of pinolene (P) to late shoot topping (T) and late above-bunch zone leaf removal (LR), all performed during the late stages of ripening, with an untreated control (C). Vine water status was monitored weekly from the time of treatment application until harvest. Gas exchange was monitored only in 2021, from treatment application through to harvest. Berry samples were collected to measure berry weight, total soluble solids, pH, titratable acidity, and the anthocyanin profile. At harvest, we assessed yield components, rated sun damage on clusters, and produced experimental wines. Wine colour and chemical characteristics were evaluated. The application of P scarcely improved gas exchange and stem water potential. Conversely, LR and T increased water potential but did not affect leaf gas exchange. T was the only treatment that significantly decreased sugar accumulation, followed by P, which showed some effect although not significant. Grape yield was not altered, despite the use of P resulted in a lower berry weight in 2022. Canopy manipulation increased lighting conditions in the canopy and caused a significant presence of damaged fruits, especially in LR. Berry anthocyanins were not affected, but LR resulted in a lower concentration of total anthocyanins in the wine and altered the anthocyanin profile. P increased wine acidity, while LR and T improved wine colour. This study suggests that late-season canopy management can effectively control ripening speeds and improve the composition of grapes and wines. However, it is essential to avoid grape overexposure by employing the appropriate techniques to ensure grape quality is not compromised.

Gas discharge visualization as a promising tool for meat analysis during its storage

Recently a lot of analytical methods have been developed, however, only a few of them have found application in the meat industry, since they do not provide sufficient understanding of the processes that occur in meat during its storage. The use of the GDV method for analyzing the food products quality has got a number of advantages, since it allows for quick and non-invasive getting of information on the food product condition, which capability may be quite promising for meat analysis. The study described in this paper is based on the GDV method application for analyzing the condition of the chilled pork at various stages of its storage and for detecting the peculiar changes in its quality.The study analyzed samples of Sus scrofa m. longissimus dorsi stored at a temperature of 0 to 4 °C for five days. Using the software ImageJ to analyze the gas-discharge glow of meat, its main parameters were obtained, such as an area, average radius of glow and color characteristics. The most significant characteristics of the gas-discharge glow were determined, among which the glow area, shape factor, uncertainty and dispersion were focused on. It was shown that synchronously with the development of rigor mortis, there was a decrease in the area of the gas-discharge glow, and with its resolution and further storage of meat — a noticeable increase. The dispersion of the radius of meat glow by the end of the storage period increased by 2.03 times in comparison with the original value, and the gas discharge was unstable and featured a large number of streamer branches.The influence of histostructural changes and fractional composition of proteins on the properties of the electromagnetic field during GDV of meat has been proven. It has been shown that the method of gas discharge visualization, along with histological studies, can be used to analyze meat during its storage and defining the depth of autolytic changes that take place in the meat.

Physicochemical Characteristics and Flavor Quality Analysis of Fermented Jerky from Yanbian Beef Cattle.

Beef jerky is a traditional meat product. It is uses beef as the main raw material, and is processed through multiple procedures such as curing, maturing, drying, sterilization, and packaging. However, changes in raw materials, curing solution, the choice of fermenter, and fermentation conditions affect the quality and flavor of beef jerky. Therefore, we investigated the effects of inoculation with Pentosaccharomyces schizococcus and Staphylococcus veal, both pre- and post-fermentation, on the physicochemical characteristics and flavor quality of Yanbian beef jerky. Key parameters, including pH, water activity, fundamental nutrients, and color, were measured, while qualitative and flavor characteristics were assessed using a texture meter, an electronic nose, and an electronic tongue. The results indicated that samples inoculated with the composite fermenter exhibited significant increases in ash content, hardness, total free amino acid concentration, and levels of specific flavor-enhancing amino acids compared to unfermented jerky (p < 0.05). In contrast, moisture content, pH, and water activity were significantly reduced (p < 0.05). Three fatty acids-heptadecenoic acid, trans-oleic acid, and arachidonic acid-were identified for the first time in the fermented beef jerky. Furthermore, during the fermentation process, saturated fatty acid content was reduced by 21.88%, while polyunsaturated fatty acid content increased by 29.58% (p < 0.05).

Establishment of a Breeding Approach Combined with Gamma Ray Irradiation and Tissue Regeneration for Highbush Blueberry

Blueberries are a relatively recently domesticated species, primarily bred through hybridization. Mutation breeding, which uses chemical or physical treatment to increase plant mutation, has not yet been applied to blueberries. This study introduces a mutation breeding strategy for the highbush blueberry cultivar Vaccinium corymbosum. We established a high-efficiency regeneration protocol, which was applied to leaves and stems exposed to gamma irradiation using 60Co-γ rays at doses of 10, 20, 40, 80, and 120 gray (Gy), to increase the efficiency of mutated cells to develop into adventitious shoots. We determined that the median lethal dose (LD50) was approximately 56 Gy for leaf explants and 80 Gy for stem explants. Phenotypic variations, including changes in leaf color and growth characteristics, which may be due to altered plant response to environmental factors, were successfully observed in the first-generation (M1) plants. The height of M1 plants quantitatively decreased with increasing irradiation doses. To evaluate the mutants induced by each irradiation dose, whole-genome resequencing was conducted on individuals from each dose group, revealing significant genomic alterations at the 80 Gy dose. This approach provides a valuable reference for future blueberry breeding programs aimed at enhancing genetic diversity and improving cultivar performance.

Optimizing Growth Conditions and Biochemical Properties of Chondracanthus acicularis (Rhodophyta) in Laboratory Settings

This study aimed to evaluate the laboratory cultivation of Chondracanthus acicularis, focusing on key environmental parameters such as nutrient levels and light exposure. The results provide insights into the optimal growth conditions and biochemical composition of C. acicularis, which are crucial for its sustainable exploitation in industrial applications. Significant differences in the relative growth rate (RGR) and productivity (Y) were found between the different treatments. Seaweed grown on Provasoli (PES) Medium with white LED light and red LED light showed the best growth rates. Negative growth was observed in treatments with Nutribloom plus®, and blue LED light. The proximate composition analysis revealed a high moisture content across all treatments, with significant differences in ash and organic matter content between the treatments. The use of LED light played a crucial role in optimizing growth by influencing photosynthetic efficiency and pigment production. The proximate composition varied significantly between treatments, especially ash and organic matter. Light and nutrient conditions also influenced pigmentation and colour characteristics, with significant changes in phycoerythrin, phycocyanin, and chlorophyll concentration. PES treatments consistently showed the highest colour variation. These findings highlight the influence of environmental conditions on seaweed growth, productivity, pigmentation, and proximate composition, and provide valuable insights for optimized cultivation strategies.

The red colour in chinicuil (Comadia redtenbacheri (Hammerschmidt)) is due to rhodommatin pigment

Abstract In Mexico, Comadia redtenbacheri (Hammerschmidt) is called chinicuil or agave red worm which is highly appreciated since pre-Hispanic period and was considered a delicacy greatly accept by the Aztec. At present, chinicuil is highly valued not only for its culinary value but also as an ornamental in the mezcal industry, although it has not been possible to preserve its intense red colour. One reason for this is probably that the pigment responsible for the reddish coloration of the chinicuil has not yet been identified, making it difficult to find a possible alternative for its preservation. For this reason, the aim of this research was to elucidate the chemical structure of the pigment responsible for the reddish coloration of chinicuil in order to expand knowledge of its properties and offer alternatives for colour preservation.. According to the results of this study, the size is decisive for the colour of the larvae. The small larvae are white, while the large larvae are reddish in colour. The results of the colour characteristics of the larvae showed that the large larvae tend to have a reddish coloration, while a yellowness or white coloration is observed in the other larval sizes. The chromatographic UV-Vis profile of the pigment in the large larvae showed signals characteristic of the ommochromes, which was confirmed by the 1H NMR spectra, in which characteristic signals of the aromatic rings, glycosides, carboxyl and amine groups were detected. These results lead to the conclusion that the principal pigment that gives the chinicuil its red colour is rhodommatin.

A new chemotype of &lt;i&gt;Cananga odorata&lt;/i&gt; flowers for improved extraction of essential oils with bioeconomic perspectives in Eastern Africa

Due to its geographical position, Burundi benefits from several soil genesis factors and large variations in microclimates to which are added water resources, which give to Burundi a floral heritage of great diversity. This study therefore aimed to assess the physicochemical properties (density, refractive index, acid index and ester index) as well as the associated organoleptic characteristics (odor, color and appearance), of the essential oil extracted by hydrodistillation from fresh flowers of Annonaceae family tropical trees C. Odorata, a chemotype cultivated and grown in Bujumbura, Burundi. Analyses of physicochemical properties values were done and compared to reference values. It appears that for the refractive index, density and acid number, the findings of this study are within the pre-established standards. More interesting, the value of ester number was very beyond the norm by a factor of almost two, breaking the record already registered by AFNOR, therefore suggesting of an essential oil of exceptional quality. The findings presented in this study also highlight the importance of C. Odorata chemotype from the plains of Burundi as a promising potential candidate for bio-based products of public interests such as bio-based cosmetics and bio-based pharmaceuticals products, and therefore offer new insights bioeconomics in health and well-being. Finally, this plant can easily be cultivated, not only in Burundi, but also in countries of the Eastern Africa that share the same geoclimatic conditions as the Great African Rift.

Influence of New Generation Plant Growth Regulators and Fruit Bagging on Organoleptic Properties of Guava (Psidium guajava L.) cv. G-27

The current study was performed at the field of Horticulture Research Orchard, Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, RVSKVV, Gwalior (M.P.) during 2022-23 and 2023-24. The main aim of the study was to identify the effect of new generation Plant Growth Regulators and fruit bagging techniques on the organoleptic characteristics (appearance, taste, color, aroma and overall acceptability) of guava fruits. The experiment was laid in Factorial Randomized Block Design comprising of 20 treatment combinations. The individual as well as combined effect of novel PGRs and fruit bagging was studied. Maximum score on various organoleptic characteristics was recorded in treatment P5B3 (Salicylic acid 600 ppm + White polyethylene bag) while the minimum score was attained in P1B1 (control). The experiment shows the possibility of using white polyethylene bags in combination with salicylic acid 600 ppm treatment to improve the organoleptic properties of fruits of Psidium guajava L., maturity while reducing damage from insect pests

Physicochemical Properties, Antioxidant Activity, and Flavor Profile of Strawberry Fruit-Based Novel Drinking Jelly Made with Gracilaria fisheri Seaweed as a Gelling Agent at Varying Concentrations.

Gracilaria fisheri (GF) is a red seaweed that is widely found in Southeast Asia and has gained attention for its potential bioactive compounds and versatile applications in food products. This study explored the potential of GF as a natural gelling agent in the development of sustainable strawberry-based drinking jelly. By utilizing GF at varying concentrations (0.2 (S1), 0.4 (S2), 0.6 (S3), 0.8 (S4), and 1.0% (S5)), the impact on the physicochemical, textural, phytochemical, and flavor profiles of the strawberry concentrate-based drinking jelly was examined. The results demonstrated that GF concentration significantly affected the color characteristics, structural development, and flavor profiles of the drinking jelly samples. Increasing GF levels progressively enhanced the lightness (L*) and redness (a*) values while reducing the yellowness (b*), with optimal visual appeal achieved in the S4 samples compared to others. Microscopical observations revealed that gel matrix development improved with GF concentrations up to 0.8% (S4), transitioning from a sparse, liquid-like structure at lower levels to a compact, over-gelated network at 1.0% (S5). Physicochemical parameters, including pH, total soluble solid (TSS), and TSS/titratable acidity (TA) ratios, increased with GF levels, contributing to a sweeter, less acidic product, while water activity (aw) decreased, enhancing jelly stability. Viscosity and sulfate content increased significantly with GF concentration, indicating improved gel strength but reduced fluidity. Phytochemical analysis revealed that ascorbic acid (AsA) and total phenolic content (TPC) decreased progressively with higher GF levels, leading to a reduction in antioxidant activity (DPPH and ABTS). Volatile compound analysis identified alcohols, esters, and aldehydes as dominant contributors to the flavor profile. 1-Octanol (waxy, citrus-like) and methyl anthranilate (grape-like, sweet) increased substantially, while minor groups such as terpenoids and phenolic compounds contributed floral and woody notes. The findings suggest that S4 samples strike the optimal balance between texture, color, flavor, and antioxidant properties, achieving a cohesive, visually appealing, and flavorful drinking jelly suitable for commercial applications.

Confinement of carbon dots into carboxymethyl cellulose matrice to prepare solid-state fluorescent films and couple with Eu-MOF toward white light-emitting diodes.

As a novel fluorescent carbon nanomaterial, carbon dots are restricted by their poor fluorescence in the solid state, although they exhibit favorable photoluminescence in solution. N-doped carbon dots (N-CDs) and solid-state fluorescence films were prepared using green and renewable cellulose-derived materials, respectively. The hydrogen bonding network of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) inhibits the self-aggregation behavior of N-CDs, which leads to solid-state fluorescence. The N-CDs was initially obtained with CMC as the carbon source, which showed excellent blue fluorescence. Subsequently, the white-emitting films (N-CDs@Eu-MOF/CMC) were successfully constructed by combining the blue fluorescent N-CDs with the red fluorescence of the europium metal-organic framework. The prepared films showed stable luminescence within 30days and in the heat environment at 120°C for 3h. After covering the N-CDs@Eu-MOF/CMC films on the UV-LED chip with ultraviolet emissive at 365nm, the white light-emitting diodes were obtained, which exhibited excellent color characteristics with the color coordinates, a correlated color temperature, and a color rendering index of (0.31, 0.32), 6580K, and 92, respectively. The strategy proposed in this work will provide ideas for generating optical luminescent films from biomass and provide guidance for solid-state fluorescence biomass materials.

Morphological Characteristics of Leaf Color and Leaf Shape of Soybean Variety Anjasmoro (Glycine max (L.) Merril) under Water Stress

Anjasmoro soybean variety exhibits intolerance to water stress, which can significantly impact the growth of soybean plants, particularly concerning leaf morphological characteristics. This study aims to assess the effects of water stress on the leaf color and leaf shape of the Anjasmoro soybean variety. The research was conducted from June to July 2024 at the Gauze House of Food Crop Agribusiness at SMKN 1 Tambusai, Rokan Hulu, and the Integrated Laboratory of the Agrotechnology Study Program at the Faculty of Agriculture, Pasir Pengaraian University. The materials utilized in this study included Anjasmoro soybean seeds, soil, 35 x 40 cm polybags, and 15 kg of goat manure. This investigation employed a Non-Factorial, Completely Randomized Design (CRD), focusing on the variable of water stress (P) with three replications. The water stress treatments consisted of four levels: P0: 25% field capacity (KL) water stress applied twice daily, P1: 25% KL water stress applied twice daily, P2: 25% KL water stress applied once every three days, and P3: 25% KL water stress applied once every six days. The results indicated that water stress did not significantly affect the leaf color and leaf shape of the Anjasmoro soybean variety in the P0, P1, and P2 treatments. However, the P3 treatment resulted in observable leaf color and shape changes. These findings suggest that the Anjasmoro soybean variety has a low drought tolerance.

High reflectivity surface highlight removal technology based on light field polarization imaging.

This paper proposes an imaging technique to remove strong reflections from specular surfaces using polarization characteristics combined with light field imaging. Firstly, the correct strong reflection region is found by studying the reflected light characteristics, and the strong reflection region highlights are filtered out using Stokes parameters based on polarization information. Then, a system of microlens arrays with different transmittances was built for imaging, and the system was image-corrected to enable more information about the scene to be captured. Finally, the color statistics are corrected according to the color characteristics, and then the color adjustment is performed to enhance the local color transfer results to obtain a high-quality true color image. The results of the experiment suggest that the method proposed in this paper is effective in restoring the actual texture contours of large highlight regions on strongly reflective surfaces.

A novel technique for rapid determination of pressure injury stages using intelligent machine vision

A developed intelligent machine vision system combined with deep-learning algorithms was attempted to determine pressure injury (PI) stages rapidly. A total of 500 images were selected according to the color and texture characteristics of probable PI sites closely related to fie PI stages based on the guidance of PI experts. Each target box of the PI site was labeled by the same researcher for label consistency. Characteristic values of pressure injuries were extracted from segmented images for further model construction. In developing the rapid determination models, five you just look once (YOLO) pattern recognition models (i.e., YOLO8n, YOLO8s, YOLO8m, YOLO8l, and YOLO8x) were constructed, and they were optimized among 100 epochs. Compared with other models, the YOLO8l model showed the best result, with the precision values among pressure injury stage I to V (i.e., PI_I, PI_II, PI_III, PI_IV, and PI_V) of 0.98, 0.97, 0.95, 0.95, and 0.94, respectively. The overall results suggest that this intelligent machine vision system is useful for PI stage determination and perhaps other disease diagnoses closely related to color and texture characteristics.

Improving Goat Meat (Longissimus Muscle) Tenderization by Using Moringa Oleifera Leaves

Moringa oleifera leaves has potential as a natural tenderizing agent for goat meat, explicitly targeting the longissimus muscle. The study aimed to improve goat meat tenderization by using Moringa Oleifera and provide an eco-friendly and health-conscious method for improving the quality of goat meat. Treatments with fresh moringa leaves (as paste 10 gr/100 meat) were applied to goat meat samples (Control = Untreated sample, T1 = treated for 3hr, T2 = treated for 6hr). The treat samples were left in the fridge at temperatures 4 to 3 and 6 hr followed by assessments of texture profile (TPA), pH, color, and cooking loss (CL); the results show texture profile (hardness and toughness) significant (p&lt; 0.05) between control and treat samples, (Adhesiveness et al.) insignificant (p&lt; 0.05), without adverse effects on cooking loss (CL). On the other hand, the Moringa leaves paste increased the PH of treated samples compared with the control. It was some changes in color characteristics, especially in (Redness (a*) and (Yellowness (b*), without adverse effects on (lightness L*); these changes are beneficial for enhancing the visual appeal of particular meat and meat products while also contributing to their nutritional quality to consumers. The present results suggest that Moringa oleifera seems to be a promising source of exogenous enzymes for meat tenderization.

The mitochondrial functional characteristics and microstructure play an important role in yak meat color during wet curing.

The study investigated the impact of low-dose sodium nitrite on yak meat color and mitochondrial functional characteristics during the wet curing. The results showed that sodium nitrite significantly enhanced the redness (a ⁎ value) of yak meat by increasing the activities of mitochondrial complexes I, II, III and IV, which are critical for electron transport and aerobic respiration. Additionally, sodium nitrite reduced mitochondrial swelling and membrane permeability, and slowed the production of lipid oxidation products, indicating protective effects against mitochondrial damage and preserving mitochondrial integrity. Correlation analysis and Orthogonal Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA) identified mitochondrial complex I activity, NADH-dependent metmyoglobin reductase activity, and specific lipid oxidation products as key factors influencing the a ⁎ value of yak meat. These findings highlighted the significant role of mitochondrial function and structure in meat color stability.

A New 'cyclotis-morphotype' Species of Tube-Nosed Bat (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae: Murina) from China.

During an examination of various specimens previously collected from different locations at different times, we discovered four Murina specimens that had been collected in October and December 2023 from the Huanglianshan National Nature Reserve, Lvchun, Yunnan, China. Morphologically, these specimens can be distinguished from M. pluvialis and other congeneric species based on a combination of body size, hair distribution, fur colour, and skull and teeth characteristics; molecularly, an analysis of Cyt b and COI gene sequences showed that these specimens form a monophyletic group with M. pluvialis with high posterior probability and bootstrap support values. Furthermore, the genetic distance between our specimens and M. pluvialis was greater than the minimum threshold for interspecific differentiation, indicating that they are phylogenetically close but have diverged. Based on the above assessment of morphological characteristics and molecular data analysis, these specimens were determined to represent a previously unidentified species, designated Murina lvchun Xin Mou & Song Li, sp. nov.

Comparative evaluation of changes in colour (L*, a* and b*) and sensory characteristics of freeze-dried shrimp (Metapenaeus affinis) in different packaging materials

Comparative evaluation of changes in colour (L*, a* and b*) and sensory characteristics of freeze-dried shrimp (Metapenaeus affinis) in different packaging materials

Optimization of dark chocolate formulation with roasted coriander cake as cocoa substitute.

Since worldwide demand for cocoa is predicted to exceed supply in the upcoming years, this study aimed to find a substitute for cocoa powder in dark chocolate formulation. In the first phase, Coriander cake, a by-product of extracting oil from coriander seeds, was roasted at 165°C respectively for 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10min, and physicochemical characteristics (pH, aw, and color parameters), compositional properties, and total phenolic content were examined and compared to cocoa powder. Coriander cake roasted for 6min was almost equal to cocoa powder and qualified for use in dark chocolate formulation. In the second phase, roasted coriander cake (RCC) was used as a partial replacement for sugar and cocoa powder. The physicochemical and rheological characteristics of RCC chocolates were evaluated. Appropriate mathematical models defined by using best-fitting analysis described results. According to the results, the fitted models illustrated a desirable coefficient of determination (≥90%).The optimization of the variables indicated that using RCC 6.08g, Sugar 14.68g, and Cocoa 12.23g produced the optimized RCC chocolate with the highest desirability while maintaining the quality characteristics without undesirable changes. The samples' flow behavior and physicochemical properties showed that RCC could be used as a cocoa substitute.