Raw Meat Color Research Articles

Change in Myoglobin Denaturation and Physiochemical Properties Among Three Degrees of Doneness and Three Beef Whole Muscles

While the factors impacting raw meat color have been extensively explored, the factors affecting cooked meat color have been largely ignored, leaving a gap in research. Establishing a baseline for the changes that accompany different degrees of doneness (DOD) could serve as the foundation for future studies to further understand what factors are impacting differences in cooked color of whole muscles. Beef strip loins (n=12) and top butts (n=12) were used to evaluate the Longissimus dorsi (LD), Biceps femoris (BF), and Gluteus medius (GM) between 3 DOD: medium rare (62.8°C), medium (71.1°C), and well-done (76.7°C). Immediately after cooking, steaks were sliced, evaluated for L*, a*, b*, frozen in liquid nitrogen, and blended into a powder for lab assays including myoglobin denaturation, metmyoglobin-reducing activity (MRA), surface hydrophobicity, proximate analysis, and lipid oxidation. An additional steak was cooked for shear force and cook loss. As expected, the a* values decreased (P<0.05) and myoglobin denaturation percentages increased (P<0.05) with increasing DOD, while muscle source did not impact (P>0.05) either. Surface hydrophobicity, which is a measure of exposed hydrophobic groups caused by denaturation, increased (P<0.05) with increasing DOD, while MRA decreased (P<0.05) with each DOD. However, the BF and GM muscles resulted in greater (P<0.05) MRA compared to the LD. There was an interaction (P<0.05) for lipid oxidation. As DOD increased past the raw state, differences inoxidation between muscles emerged. While the factors evaluated among the DOD were impacted, muscle type surprisingly affected most assays evaluated as well. This study can serve as a foundational paper to support future cooked color research to further understand what factors impact cooked color and cooked color stability of whole muscle cuts.

Technological properties, chemical composition, texture profile, and sensory evaluation of goose muscles from Polish native breeds

The study aimed to determine the technological and sensory properties of the breast and thigh muscles of geese from the Polish native varieties: Kartuska (Ka) and Suwalska (Su) (from northern Poland) as well as Lubelska (Lu) and Kielecka (Ki) (from southern Poland). The color parameters: L*, a*, b*, ΔE, C, h°, total heme pigments (THPs), and share of myoglobin (Mb), metmyoglobin (MMb), and oxymyoglobin (MbO2) in muscles were determined. In terms of technological properties, the following were determined: pH24, water-binding capacity (WBC), water-holding capacity (WHC), cooking (CL), and roasting losses (RL). In addition, a sensory evaluation of the raw meat color was performed. In roasted meat, a sensory evaluation and texture profile analysis (TPA) were carried out, as well as the shear force (SF) and chemical composition were determined. Roasted muscles of varieties native to northern Poland (Ka and Su) were higher in lipids (P≤0.05) than the muscles of southern varieties (Lu and Ki). Ka meat had the highest protein content, and Lu meat had the lowest (P≤0.05). The raw muscle color sensory evaluation results, the THP, and the L* and ΔE values indicated that the darkest color among the studied genotypes were the Ka muscles, and the lightest was Ki meat (P≤0.05). Lu's muscles are distinguished by better usability for processing and culinary purposes than the muscles of the other genotypes due to high pH24, WBC, WHC, and low RL and CL of thigh muscles, as well as high WHC and low RLs of the breast muscles (P≤0.05). Due to the tenderness, juiciness, and high general evaluation (P≤0.05), the best sensory features among the studied genotypes were found in the Ka breast and thigh muscles. The low SF value proved the higher tenderness of Ka geese muscles.

Spirulina as Animal Feed: Opportunities and Challenges.

Increasing demand for protein, especially animal-based proteins and the large amounts of protein feed inputs required for production, has largely driven the research on spirulina as an animal feed. This short communication summarizes the results from two larger research projects investigating spirulina as an animal feed. Overall, spirulina appears to be a prospective protein source in poultry and pork production, as well as aquaculture. However, spirulina as a feed can have implications for system productivity and end product quality, depending on animal production system. Neither swine productivity nor product quality was negatively affected with spirulina as a feed, which is likely due to the low amounts of protein required in swine finishing diets. Spirulina as a feed does negatively affect poultry and fish productivity as well as alter product quality, primarily raw meat color. Therefore, future research focused on sustainability analysis and product processing and acceptance should investigate the trade-offs of incorporating spirulina into poultry and fish diets.

The combination effect of adding rosemary extract and oregano essential oil on ground chicken meat quality

Preservative effect of oregano essential oil (OE) and rosemary extract (RE) on ground chicken meat stored at different refrigeration time had been evaluated. Six treatments were prepared: T1) Control (No additives); T2) Combination (CM1) of 100 ppm OE and 300 ppm RE; T3) CM2: 100 ppm OE + 350 ppm RE; T4) CM3: 150 ppm OE + 300 ppm RE; T5) CM4: 150 ppm OE + 350 ppm RE; T6) 14 ppm of butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA). Meat patties were individually packaged in oxygen-permeable bags stored at 4 °C, and analyzed for lipid and protein oxidation, and CIE color values at 0, 4, and 7 days. Individual cooked thigh meats were used to evaluate different sensory attributes. All additives showed significant (P < 0.05) antioxidant effect delaying lipid and protein oxidation after day 4 comparing to the control treatment samples. However, the highest significant (P < 0.05) effect among all treatments was by CM4. The CM4 was the highest stabilizing raw meat color, and preventing meat discoloration. In addition, it showed (CM4) highest overall acceptability scores values regarding sensory evaluation. Based on current results, both OE and RE had a potential antioxidant activity; however, this could be stronger if used together.

Meat quality traits in the Greater rhea (Rhea americana) as influenced by muscle, sex and age

Meat from the Greater rhea (Rhea americana) could compete with traditional red meats, diversifying the market of protein products of animal origin. The meat from 32 rheas was used to study quality aspects and this included ultimate pH (pHu), color, water-holding capacity (WHC%), cooking loss (CL%) and tenderness. The muscles sampled were the Gastrocnemius pars externa, Iliofibularis and Obturatorius medialis from both sexes at multiple ages (10, 12, 14, 16 months). Age at slaughter affected WHC%, CL%, and color in raw meat and tenderness in cooked meat. Muscles under study showed differences in terms of pHu, raw meat color, and tenderness of cooked meat. Sex did not have a significant effect on any of the variables studied. According to our results, rhea meat from younger animals, between 10 to 14 months old, was tender and moderately juicy and the visual color was appreciated by the consumers.

Disinfection of chicken fillets in packages with atmospheric cold plasma: effects of treatment voltage and time.

To study effects of treatment voltage and time of in-package atmospheric cold plasmas (ACP) on quality of raw chicken meat. Meat was packed in trays in air, treated with ACP and stored at 4°C for 24h or 3days. Increasing voltage from 55 to 80kV caused increasing O3 inside packages, but had no effects on microbes, colour and pH after 24h of storage at 4°C. There were no differences in O3 , microbes, colour lightness and pH between treatment times 3, 6 and 9min at 80kV after 3-day storage. However, microbial populations on ACP-treated meat were lower than untreated control. Treatments at 80kV for >3min reduced meat redness and yellowness. ACP voltage does not affect microbes, colour and pH of meat after 24h of storage. ACP treatments for ≥3min at 80kV reduce microbes and affect colour of raw meat. Our data demonstrate that increasing ACP voltage from 55 to 80kV or time from 3 to 9min may not affect meat microbial growth and pH. Increasing treatment time longer than 3min may affect meat appearance.

Effect of marination on lightness of broiler breast fillets varies with raw meat color attributes

Marination effect on meat color L* values was evaluated in chicken breast fillets with different color attributes. Samples were marinated in a vacuum tumbler. Color was measured on the fillet dorsal side at 4 h (pre-marination) and 48 h postmortem (PM). There was no difference (P < 0.05) in L* values between non-marinated 4 h and 48 h pale samples; however, L* values in marinated pale fillets at 48 h PM decreased by more than 5 units. L* values in non-marinated normal and dark fillets increased by more than 5 units at 48 h PM. But L* values of marinated normal fillets were lower than non-marinated controls by more than 3 units and there was no difference in L* values between marinated samples and controls in dark fillets after 48 h PM. Data demonstrate that marination reduces lightness in pale breast fillets, prevents lightness in normal fillets from increasing during PM aging, and has no effect on lightness in dark fillets.

Comparisons of sensory descriptive flavor and texture profiles of cooked broiler breast fillets categorized by raw meat color lightness values1

Three replicate trials were conducted to compare sensory descriptive profiles of cooked broiler breast fillets categorized by raw meat color lightness or CIE L* values. In each trial, 20 light, 20 dark, and 30 random fillets (42-d-old birds and deboned at 6 to 8 h postmortem) were obtained from a commercial processing plant. On return to the laboratory, CIE L* a* b* (medial side), pH, and weights were measured. Ten fillets for each of 3 lightness categories were chosen based on the L* values as follows: light, L* > 60; medium (middle of random group), 55 < L* < 59; and, dark, L* < 55. Cook yield, Warner-Bratzler shear force, and descriptive sensory attributes were measured on the chosen fillets after 7 d of frozen storage followed by cooking to an endpoint temperature of 78 to 80 degrees C. Sensory evaluations were performed by trained descriptive panelists using universal intensity scales of 0 to 15 for 9 flavor and 8 texture attributes. Our results show that there were significant differences among the 3 lightness categories for pH, thaw loss, cook yield, and shear force. There were no significant differences in average flavor intensity scores between the 3 lightness categories. However, the average intensity scores of the texture attributes cohesiveness, hardness, rate of breakdown, and chewiness of the light fillets were significantly higher than either the dark or the medium fillets (P < 0.01), which did not differ from each other. These results indicate that sensory flavor profiles of cooked broiler breast fillets are similar regardless of raw meat color lightness (or L* values). There is no difference in the texture profiles between the cooked medium and dark fillets. But the sensory texture profile of fillets categorized as light based on CIE L* values is different from those of the fillets categorized as either medium or dark.

Evaluation of induced color changes in chicken breast meat during simulation of pink color defect

The objective of the study was to establish a pink threshold and simulate the pink defect in cooked chicken breast meat with treatment combinations that would induce significant changes in the color of raw and cooked meat. The subjective pink threshold used in judging pink discoloration was established at a* = 3.8. Samples of three color groups (normal, lighter than normal, and darker than normal) of boneless, skinless chicken breast muscles were selected based on instrumental color values. The in situ changes were induced using sodium chloride, sodium tripolyphosphate, sodium erythorbate, and sodium nitrite at two levels: present and not present. Fillets in all treatments were subjected to individual injections, followed by tumbling, cooking, and chilling. Samples were analyzed for color [lightness (L*), red/green axis (a*), yellow/blue axis (b*)] and reflectance spectra. Simulation of the pink defect was achieved in eight of the 16 treatment combinations when sodium nitrite was present and in an additional two treatment combinations when it was absent. Pinking in cooked samples was affected (P < 0.05) by L* of raw meat color. Results confirmed that it was possible to simulate the undesired pinking in cooked chicken white meat when in situ conditions were induced by sodium chloride, sodium tripolyphosphate, and sodium nitrite. The continuation of the simulation study can aid in developing alternative processing methods to eliminate potential pink defects.

Cooking and Eating-Quality Characteristics of Dark-Cutting Beef from Young Bulls

The cooking and eating quality of semitendinosus (ST) and longissimus (L) muscle roasts from normal and dark-cutting beef of varying pH ranges (Group I, normal pH ⩽ 5.70; Group II, pH 5.71 to 5.99; Group III, pH 6.00 to 6.50 and Group IV, pH ⩾ 6.51) were determined. Roasts, obtained from young bulls (mean live weight 618 kg), were dry-heat roasted at 163 C to an internal temperature of 65 C. Evaluations by a trained taste panel (L and ST roasts) and consumer panel (L roasts) indicated that the eating quality of roasts from all pH groups was similar and acceptable. Differences among treatment groups in raw lean color were not detected in the cooked ST and L roasts. As muscle pH increased in both ST and L roasts, softness and tenderness scores increased and cooking losses decreased. Although small differences in other characteristics (juiciness, aroma and flavor) were sometimes noted, they were not of practical significance. Because cooked beef with pH indicative of both normal and dark-cutting muscle is likely to be acceptable to most consumers, these roasts have potential for use by the institutional and food-service sectors where raw meat color should be of little importance.