Color Blindness Research Articles

Fitness to Work Assessment for Oil Palm Fruits Harvest Workers Diagnosed with Color Blindness using Color Blind Test Media Based on the Color of Oil Palm Fruit.

Color blindness or color vision deficiency (CVD) is a disease that makes recognizing colors difficult or impossible. A person with color blindness may find it challenging to obtain employment, particularly in positions that need the ability to distinguish or see colors accurately. As the world's largest producer of palm oil, Indonesia employs a vast number of people in this industry. To discern between ripe and unripe oil palm fruit, harvesting jobs for oil palms is one of the occupations that require excellent color recognition skills. In the lack of a practical test method to determine the eligibility of a color blind oil palm fruit harvester, a simple yet effective test that can be modified for each enterprise is required.

Phenotype and genotype of 15 Saudi patients with achromatopsia: A case series.

Achromatopsia is a rare stationary retinal disorder that primarily affects the cone photoreceptors. Individuals with achromatopsia present with photophobia, nystagmus, reduced visual acuity (VA), and color blindness. Multiple genes responsible for achromatopsia have been identified (e.g. cyclic nucleotide-gated channel subunit alpha 3 [CNGA3] and activating transcription factor 6). Studies have assessed the role of gene therapy in achromatopsia. Therefore, for treatment and prevention, the identification of phenotypes and genotypes is crucial. Here, we described the clinical manifestations and genetic mutations associated with achromatopsia in patients from Saudi Arabia. This case series study included 15 patients with clinical presentations, suggestive of achromatopsia, who underwent ophthalmological and systemic evaluations. Patients with typical achromatopsia phenotype underwent genetic evaluation using whole-exome testing. All patients had nystagmus (n = 15) and 93.3% had photophobia (n = 14). In addition, all patients (n = 15) had poor VA. Hyperopia with astigmatism was observed in 93.3% (n = 14) and complete color blindness in 93.3% of the patients (n = 14). In the context of family history, both parents of all patients (n = 15) were genetic carriers, with a high consanguinity rate (82%, n = 9 families). Electroretinography showed cone dysfunction with normal rods in 66.7% (n = 10) and both cone-rod dysfunction in 33.3% (n = 5) patients. Regarding the genotypic features, 93% of patients had variants in CNGA3 (n = 14) categorized as pathogenic Class 1 (86.7%, n = 13). Further, 66.7% (n = 10) of patients also harbored the c.661C>T DNA variant. Further, the patients were homozygous for these mutations. Three other variants were also identified: c.1768G>A (13.3%, n = 2), c.830G>A (6.6%, n = 1), and c. 822G >T (6.6%, n = 1). Consanguinity and belonging to the same tribe are major risk factors for disease inheritance. The most common genotype was CNGA3 with the c.661C>T DNA variant. We recommend raising awareness among families and providing genetic counseling for this highly debilitating disease.

Case report: Prolonged amelioration of mild red-green color vision deficiency following psilocybin mushroom use

Background Recent survey data indicate that some people report long-term improvement in color vision deficiency (CVD), also known as color blindness, following use of psychedelics such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin. However, there are no objective data reported in the medical literature quantifying the degree or duration of CVD improvement associated with psychedelic use. Case presentation Here we present the case of a subject with red-green CVD (mild deuteranomalia) who self-administered the Ishihara Test to quantify the degree and duration of CVD improvement following the use of 5 g of dried psilocybin mushrooms. Self-reported Ishihara Test data from the subject revealed partial improvement in CVD peaking at 8 days and persisting for at least 16 days post-psilocybin administration. This improvement may have lasted longer, though the subsequent observations are confounded by additional substance use. Conclusion A single use of psilocybin may produce partial improvements in CVD extending beyond the period of acute effect, despite this condition typically resulting from a genetic defect. Systematic exploration of this possible phenomenon is needed to confirm our findings, gauge their generalizability, and determine the mechanism of action.

Brightness Conversion of Color Images on Equi-Hue Plane by Using Color Vectors

Vision is particularly important among the senses that humans perceive, and among them, the sense of color is called color vision. Since color blindness is characterized by color vision, color discrimination may be difficult and may interfere with daily life. Therefore, image color conversion is performed to facilitate color discrimination. However, since general color conversion does not preserve the hue of an image, the resulting image is unnatural for people with general color vision. In this research, brightness correction is performed on the equi-hue plane in the RGB space. Saturation is corrected according to the position of the pixel on the constant hue plane. This enables natural color conversion considering the color distance between pixels while preserving the hue of the image. We verify the effectiveness of the proposed method through various experiments.

Effects of eye dominance on shade matching and color perception among the dentist population.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of eye dominance on color perception, and shade matching. A total of 104 participants were selected for the study. There were 3 groups: Group I: 3rd and 4th year dental students and interns (n = 40); Group II: postgraduates (n = 34); Group III: senior residents and faculty members (≥ 6 years of clinical experience) (n = 30). All participants were evaluated for congenital color blindness with Ishihara plates, their dominant eye with Mile's test, and their color perception with the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test. The shade guide test was used for shade matching with a second corresponding set of Vitapan classical shade guides. The results of Mile's test revealed that 60.6% were right-eye dominant and 39.4% were left-eye dominant. There was a statistically significant difference among all participants between the dominant eye and the non-dominant eye in shade matching. The dominant eye has a positive effect on shade matching and the ability to match shades becomes better with an increase in clinical experience.

Design and Implementation of a Smart Wireless Controlled Visual Acuity Measurement System.

In this article, a smart visual acuity measurement (VAM) system is designed and implemented. Hardware of the proposed VAM system consists of two parts: a wireless remote controller, and a high-resolution LCD controlled through a Raspberry-Pi mini-computer. In the remote controller, a 3.5" graphical LCD with a touch screen is used as a human-machine interface. When a point is pressed on the touch screen, the unique identifier (ID) code of that point as well as its page number is transmitted to the Raspberry-Pi. In the Raspberry-Pi, data are received and processed by a smart application coded in visual studio software. Then, the commanded tasks are executed by the Raspberry-Pi's operating system. Numerous charts, characters, and pictures are stored in the proposed VAM system to provide various VAM options while the size of the optotypes is adjusted automatically based on the distance of the patient from the LCD. The performance of the proposed VAM system is examined practically under the supervision of an expert optometrist where the results indicate that visual acuity, astigmatism, and color blindness of patients can be examined precisely through the proposed VAM system in an easier and more comfortable manner.

Determination of congenital color blindness in phase ii students of başkent university medical faculty

Determination of congenital color blindness in phase ii students of başkent university medical faculty

The prevalence of colour blindness among the males of the Bhoksha tribe in Dehradun, India

Colour Blindness is an X-linked recessive disorder which predominantly appears in males. Colour blindness is the inability or decreased ability to perceive colour differences by the human eye under normal lighting conditions. The purpose of the present study was to find out the prevalence of congenital Red-Green colour blindness among the people of the Bhoksha tribe in Dehradun district, Uttarakhand. The study was conducted with a total number of 204 individuals aged from 5 years to 85 years (mean ± SD is 22.71 ± 13.15) among the randomly selected male population. Colour blindness was examined using a standard Ishihara Chart under proper light. Among the total sample of 204 males in the community, 3 males are found to be colour blind which means that 98.53% were found to be normal, and the frequency of colour blindness was 1.47%. These three cases represented protanopia, deuteranopia and achromatopsia. Colour blindness appeared among the Pundir, Chauhan and Kakkad clans of the Bhoksha tribe in three villages. In conclusion, 1.47% were found to be colourblind in this study among the Bhoksha tribe of Dehradun, which is very high as compared with the prevalence in other tribal populations in India, although they were unaware of it. The present study supports Post and Pickford’s (1962, 1963) hypothesis of relaxation of selection.

Exploring affect, identity, and populism in and around Todd Phillips’ Joker

Cultural identity has become a fluid concept in which several positionalities converge; most of them are influenced greatly by popular culture, causing a constant individual negotiation between their real lives and the image on the screen. In 2019, Todd Phillips’s Joker achieved worldwide success not only at the box ofce but also in critical appraisal. Unlike previous representations of this villain as a disruptive social persona, Joker showed the main character as a political fgure that gives agency and voice to the people who are socially repressed. The impact of this representation transcended Anglo cultures to the extent of symbolizing a populist uprising and a growing antigovernment sentiment. Nevertheless, this fgure’s appropriation brings twoproblematic ideological standpoints to the goal these groups aim: violence as the only alternative to restoring equality in society and color blindness that silences the struggles that cultures face depending on their context.

Assessment of visual function and the neuroretina in subjects diagnosed with colour blindness

AbstractPurpose: To assess whether the existence of colour vision deficiency or colour blindness involves impairment of visual acuity, contrast sensitivity and colour vision and results in variations in retinal nerve fibre layer (RNFL) thickness, macular area, retinal ganglion cell complex and retinal layers that contain photoreceptors (bastons and cones) versus subjects with normal colour vision within the same age and gender distribution.Methods: Cross‐sectional and observational study including 50 eyes of subjects with colour blindness and 50 eyes of control subjects. Visual function (visual acuity, contrast sensitivity and colour vision) and neuroretinal structure were assessed in all subjects using optical coherence tomography (OCT).Results: Significant thinning of the retinal nerve fibre layer, ganglion cell layer and retina were observed in the colour blindness group. Significant thinning was also recorded in layers that involve photoreceptor nuclei (between the outer limiting layer and the Bruch membrane and between the outer plexiform layer and the outer limiting membrane).Conclusions: Significantly reduced thicknesses in the RNFL and several retinal layers (ganglion cell and photoreceptor layers) were found, demonstrating that colour blindness is associated with thinning in retinal and RNFL thickness, and in the retinal layers that involve photoreceptor nuclei. OCT study with retinal segmentation therefore seems to be a marker of colour blindness of utility in clinical practice in the case of doubt regarding diagnosis. This analysis could be useful in evaluating the effectiveness of potential therapies such as gene treatment.

Effect of filters on the accommodation and colour discrimination

AbstractPurpose: To evaluate the effect of coloured filters on the accommodative response and colour discrimination in young subjects.Methods: Two long pass filters (LED light reduction and 511 nm filter), two selective absorption filters (ML41 and emerald filter), and no filter condition were evaluated. The photorefractor PowerRef3 (PlusOptix) was used to measure the objective refraction at 3 different distances (40, 100, and 400 cm). The measurement obtained at 400 cm was used as a reference to calculate the accommodative response. The fixation target consisted of five letter length words (size corresponding to 6/12 Snellen) that were presented in black font over white background. Words changed with a frequency of 2 Hz according to the rapid serial visual presentation paradigm. The Cambridge Colour Test (Metropsis) was used to measure the discrimination threshold in a 10‐vector ellipse at a 3 m viewing distance. The measurement was repeated twice, and it was performed monocularly. In total, 20 healthy volunteers with no accommodation problems or colour blindness were included.Results: On average, the accommodative response with no filter condition was larger compared to the measurements with filters for 40 and 100 cm. The differences were in all cases lower than 0.25D, and differences were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). For the colour discrimination thresholds, the ML41 and 511 filters showed statistically significant different values compared to the other two conditions for most of the vectors. The filter 511 had the highest impact on the colour vision, as the results resemble to a Tritan defect.Conclusions: The accommodative response in healthy young adults was not significantly different than the no filter condition. The colour discrimination thresholds with the filter ML41 and 511 were significantly different compared to the no filter condition.

Heterozygous HTRA1 Mutations Cause Cerebral Small Vessel Diseases: Genetic, Clinical, and Pathologic Findings From 3 Chinese Pedigrees.

Cerebral autosomal recessive arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CARASIL) is a rare hereditary cerebrovascular disease caused by homozygous or compound heterozygous variations in the high-temperature requirement A serine peptidase 1 (HTRA1) gene. However, several studies in recent years have found that some heterozygous HTRA1 mutations also cause cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD). The current study aims to report the novel genotypes, phenotypes, and histopathologic results of 3 pedigrees of CSVD with heterozygous HTRA1 mutation. Three pedigrees of familiar CSVD, including 11 symptomatic patients and 3 asymptomatic carriers, were enrolled. Whole-exome sequencing was conducted in the probands for identifying rare variants, which were then evaluated for pathogenicity according to the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics guidelines. Sanger sequencing was performed for validation of mutations in the probands and other family members. The protease activity was assayed for the novel mutations. All the participants received detailed clinical and imaging examinations and the corresponding results were concluded. Hematoma evacuation was performed for an intracerebral hemorrhage patient with the p.Q318H mutation, and the postoperative pathology including hematoma and cerebral small vessels were examined. Three novel heterozygous HTRA1 mutations (p.Q318H, p.V279M, and p.R274W) were detected in the 3 pedigrees. The protease activity was largely lost for all the mutations, confirming that they were loss-of-function mutations. The patients in each pedigree presented with typical clinical and imaging features of CVSD, and some of them displayed several new phenotypes including color blindness, hydrocephalus, and multiple arachnoid cysts. In addition, family 1 is the largest pedigree with heterozygous HTRA1 mutation so far and includes homozygous twins, displaying some variation in clinical phenotypes. More importantly, pathologic study of a patient with p.Q318H mutation showed hyalinization, luminal stenosis, loss of smooth muscle cells, splitting of the internal elastic lamina, and intramural hemorrhage/dissection-like structures. These findings broaden the mutational and clinical spectrum of heterozygous HTRA1-related CSVD. Pathologic features were similar with the previous heterozygous and homozygous cases. Moreover, clinical heterogeneity was revealed within the largest single family, and the mechanisms of the phenotypic heterogenetic remain unclear. Overall, heterozygous HTRA1-related CSVD should not be simply taken as a mild type of CARASIL as previously considered.

The influence of visual pathology on painting

AbstractPainting is, along with sculpture and architecture, the most visual of the Fine Arts and it is probably the most ancient of them. The oldest known paintings were discovered on the walls of caves in Indonesia and Spain and are believed to be more than 40 000 years old.In painting, vision is crucial both for the artists and for the viewers. Diseases affecting the eyes can have a huge impact in the artistic expression of the painters, for instance refractive errors like myopia, hyperopia and astigmatism, disorders related with age such as cataracts, presbyopia and age related macular degeneration or different pathologies including colour blindness, diabetic retinopathy, vitreal haemorrhage, retinal dystrophies, strabismus, tumours… seem to have influenced the paintings of many artists.However, it is difficult to evaluate the degree of the impact that these disorders actually have on the works of the painters. The style of an artist depends on many factors including the time or era they live in, the School of painting they belonged to, religion, politics, the influence of teachers and colleagues and, of course, their own stylistic choice. The way they perceive the world that surrounds them is surely an important factor that affects their creations, but not the only one.In this speech, we will try to look over some famous painters' works and try to explain how their ocular problems influenced their production. We will also discuss some widespread theories about alleged visual problems affecting various artists and their (lack of) accuracy.

Road-kills in New Zealand: long-term effects track population changes and reveal colour blindness

Road-kills were recorded at random throughout New Zealand, on 96359 km of roads, avoiding towns and busy motorways, from 1963-2018. Traffic increase from 1.04 m to 4.33 million vehicles during the study had little effect on mortality, even at the greater traffic density in the North Island. Seasonal changes measured on 8435 km (151 trips) between Lower Hutt and Otaki from 1985-2015 showed lowest mortality in winter. Major differences in species identification between two independent observers on the same route, from 2009-2014, resulted from one being red/green colourblind. Possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) numbers dipped briefly in the 1970s, peaked in the 1990s, and have declined since then where there has been widespread poisoning to protect trees, birds, and limit bovine TB. Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) increased steadily after control was lifted in the 1980s and now dominate the road-kills; the effect of RHD, introduced in 1997, does not register, probably because it causes short-term local oscillations. Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) numbers show no clear trend and, unlike the other species, North and South Island patterns differ; the lower numbers in the South may reflect the cooler climate. Brown hares (Lepus europaeus) remain relatively stable, with a doubling in numbers since the 1980s in parallel with rabbits. The predators, cats (Felis catus) and mustelids (Mustela furo, M.erminea, M. nivalis), followed their prey increase until the 1990s when extensive predator control began; they then declined, although rabbit and rat (Rattus rattus, R. norvegicus) numbers continued to rise. In the 1950-60s, far more live mammals were being seen on and from roads, and adaptations to traffic have evolved. These historical records may be useful to assess future changes in road-kill following the adoption of silent electric cars, driverless vehicles, and public transport.

Incidence of Color Blindness among Undergraduates Students of Medical College in Pokhara

Introduction: There are many genetic disorders that are X-linked, one being the color blindness. Some individuals affected with the disorders may remain unaware till detected for a long time. There are very few reports about the incidence of the color blindness among the medical undergraduate students. Objectives: Ojective of our study was to assess the color blindness incidence, among the medical undergraduates at the Gandaki Medical College, Pokhara. Methodology: We piloted an observational cross-sectional study among the first and second year medical students (MBBS, BDS, Nursing, and paramedics) at Gandaki medical college. We finalized 300 students of both the genders based on the inclusion criteria. We performed in the natural day light, the color vision test using the Ishihara plates. We assessed incidence, the type of the color blindness and the gender distribution among the subjects. We compared the data thus obtained applying the “chi square statistical test” deliberating p<0.05 as significant. Results: We observed that all the colorblind subjects in the study were male who constituted 2% of the all the subjects. There was significant difference statistically among the types of the color blindness with majority having Deuteranomaly. Conclusions: We can conclude that incidence of the color blindness was exclusive among men in our study. Total color blindness was seen in majority of the male subjects. Screening the students will enable the unaware students of their disability and hence they can be guided to proper counseling.

Social dominance and anti‐immigrant prejudice: A cross‐national and prospective test of the mediating role of assimilation, multiculturalism, colour blindness, and interculturalism

AbstractDecades of research have shown that social dominance orientation (SDO) is one of the most important predictors of anti‐immigrant attitudes. However, the mechanisms through which SDO can explain prejudice have been studied insufficiently. Using rich and diverse samples from France and from the province of Québec in Canada, the present research provides a cross‐national (N = 1,852) and prospective (N = 534) analysis of a theoretical model in which the dimensions of SDO are indirectly predicting anti‐immigrant prejudice via the intergroup ideologies of assimilation, multiculturalism, colour blindness and interculturalism. Results showed that interculturalism, a hierarchy‐attenuating ideology was found to be a robust mechanism to explain the subtle effects of SDO‐E on anti‐immigrant prejudice whereas assimilation, a hierarchy‐enhancing ideology was playing a more important role to explain direct and blatant effects of SDO‐D on prejudice. The two most studied diversity approaches, multiculturalism and colour blindness, were largely redundant once interculturalism was considered. This pattern occurred in both France and Québec hence, favouring the context‐independent pathway.

ODP142 Concentric Reversible Visual Field Loss, Nyctalopia and Dyschromatopsia With Ezetimibe Therapy - A Case Report

Abstract Background Ezetimibe is a lipid lowering agent that selectively inhibits intestinal cholesterol absorption. It is clinically indicated in patients with hypercholesterolemia in combination with statin or as monotherapy in patients who are contraindicated or intolerant to statin. Musculoskeletal and gastrointestinal symptoms are the commonly reported adverse drug reactions for ezetimibe monotherapy, but to date there are no published reports of ezetimibe induced visual disorders. Number of medications (including ezetimbe) associated with secondary cone-rod dystrophies (CRDs) have been reported in the Rare Disease Hub, but its mechanism of action is not well understood. Clinical case: A 55 year-old Caucasian women with a 2 years history of increasing concentric visual field loss, blurred vision, photophobia, nyctalopia (loss of night vision), dyschromatopsia (colour blindness), and new visual migraines with bright aura after commencing ezetimbe and montelukast therapy around the same time. She had a background of asthma, rosacea, and hypercholesterolemia. She does not report drug related hypersensitivity reactions other than statin intolerance and is otherwise medically well with no family history of retinal dystrophy. On investigation, pertinent positives included repeated visual field constriction on Humphrey visual fields 30'2, and significantly impaired colour vision bilaterally (R1/17, L1/17) on Ishihara charts not previously reported. MRI of orbits and brain was unremarkable. Retinal examination and electrophysiology testing were completely normal for all test conditions. Baseline blood tests including FBC, LFT, EUC, CRP, ESR, TSH, ACE, and fasting glucose were normal. Autoimmune screens including anti-retinal antibodies, ENA, ANA, anti-dsDNA, serum electrophoresis, complements, lupus anti-coagulants, and thrombophilia studies were all within normal limits. Recent abdominal US, CXR and mammography were normal. Work up for carcinoma associated retinopathy and was negative. Visual symptoms completely resolved after cessation of both ezetimibe and montelukast therapy. Rechallenge on montelukast therapy alone did not result in recurrent visual field constrictions. Clinical review after 3 months demonstrated normalization of the concentric visual field loss on Humphrey field analyzer. Conclusion This is the first case demonstrating association between ezetimibe and CRD related visual impairments. There is literature reporting multiple different medications causing cone-rod dystrophy. This includes commonly used pharmacotherapies to treat diabetes, such as sitagliptin/metformin combinations. Clinical course of CRDs is rapid and can lead to early legal blindness if left untreated. Therefore, we emphasise the importance of considering commonly used medications as a cause of patient symptoms in unexplained clinical presentations, and to systematically go through the options. Reference: (1) Cone-rod dystrophy. Rare diseases InfoHub. https://rarediseases.oscar.ncsu.edu/disease/cone-rod-dystrophy/resources/ Presentation: No date and time listed

Colour Vision Deficiency: Difference Between Congenital and Acquired Colour Blindness

Buta warna merupakan ketidakmampuan atau berkurangnya kemampuan untuk membedakan warna secara jelas dalam pencahayaan normal. Insidensi buta warna bervariasi di berbagai wilayah geografis. Buta warna berkaitan dengan struktur retina yang berperan mengubah energi cahaya menjadi sinyal listrik untuk ditransmisikan ke sistem saraf pusat dalam proses persepsi warna. Terdapat dua teori penglihatan warna yang paling terkenal yaitu teori Young-Helmholtz dan teori proses oponen. Buta warna berdasarkan etiologinya diklasifikasikan menjadi tipe kongenital (berkaitan dengan gen tertaut kromosom X resesif) dan didapat (berkaitan dengan kondisi medis lain). Diagnosis buta warna ditegakkan berdasarkan anamnesis dan pemeriksaan penunjang. Terdapat beragam tes yang dapat dilakukan sebagai pemeriksaan penunjang dalam penegakkan diagnosis buta warna.

Race and Partisanship in California Redistricting: From the 1965 Voting Rights Act to Present

After the Voting Rights Act passed in 1965 and its protections were broadened ten years later to include “language minorities,” the law made the ballot more accessible to Black and Brown voters. Oliver Richomme explains that they would not merely participate in elections but became integrally involved in California's redistricting process, further complicating an already convoluted practice. Additional factors in the second half of the twentieth century made the drawing of lines on a map increasingly contentious.In Race and Partisanship in California Redistricting, Richomme argues that race and partisanship are closely linked to redistricting and that the political forces and events within a decade influence the subsequent decades’ redistricting process. To study the connection between race and partisanship and how redistricting changes over time, Richomme studies fifty years of California's history of redistricting. He claims that as the state's racial diversity continues to grow along with their demand for equitable representation (largely within the Democratic Party), redistricting reform will generate racial and partisan polarization. With no alternative to achieve racial fairness in electoral politics, the author insists that redistricting will persist as a “conundrum of American society” (p. 373).Race and Partisanship in California Redistricting starts to chart the evolution of redistricting in the 1960s. Chapter 1 explains how the courts in the sixties ended malapportionment in California, giving Black and Brown people in urban centers a stronger political voice. As these voters entered the political arena, they increasingly sought representation from candidates of their own background and so, instead of incumbent protection being a priority in the redistricting process, race rose to the top and became entangled with this political exercise. The second chapter describes how the California Supreme Court entered the redistricting process in 1971, adding another element to influence how boundaries were drawn. As California's Latino population grew between 1970 and 1980, both the Democratic and Republican Parties courted the Latino vote. With much at stake, chapter 3 shows how the Democrats strategically selected Black and Brown politicians to advance a redistricting model that increased the number of people of color elected within the party.By the late 1980s, Latino voters mobilized to advance their political gains and turned to the federal courts to redraw election districts while the Republican Party, in the 1990s, attempted to use direct democracy. Chapter 4 shows how Latinos successfully argued before the US District Court that Los Angeles County intentionally diluted Latino's voting power, leading to the creation of a majority district. The fifth chapter covers California's Republican Party, which spent millions of dollars, after losing political ground, to pass initiatives to make the redistricting process favorable to their party. The propositions failed and instead of appealing to Latino voters, Republican Governor Pete Wilson's anti-immigrant measures pushed the Latino community away and toward the Democratic Party. These chapters clearly demonstrate the significant role the federal courts and direct democracy had on redistricting negotiations.In the last four chapters, Richomme demonstrates how divisions within the Democratic Party, passage of the California Voting Rights Act in 2001, and creation of the California Redistricting Commission in 2008 contributed to shifting the redistricting process away from the legislature to an independent citizens commission. The evolution of the state's drawing of election maps has mitigated partisan gerrymandering, but an independent redistricting commission still “needs to find the right balance between race and politics” (p. 371) writes Richomme.Race and Partisanship in California Redistricting succeeds in tracing California's history of redistricting. Richomme identifies key political events that moved both the Democratic and Republican Parties to continuously alter their approach to redistricting. And after the 1960s, using race to engineer majority-minority districts to achieve fair and equal representation seemed unavoidable. What is not fully explored is how the redistricting process has undermined the nation's supposed belief in color blindness. While both parties embraced the rhetoric of fair and equal elections, they remain grounded on a winner-take-all philosophy that is willing to use race as they see fit to win elections.This text builds on the growing scholarship that traces the total effects of the Voting Rights Act and its impact on redistricting process, particularly in California. As discussions about race and politics continue to dominate headlines, this important work can help people understand how these conversations will potentially shape the creation of new election districts.

BLACK BY GOD | The West Virginian

BLACK BY GOD | The West Virginian