Colonization Of India Research Articles

English Loanwords in Urdu Language: A Study of Borrowing

When a new object or activity or idea enters in a culture, the word or words which express it may be borrowed. The most basic function of a loanword is communicating the new object or idea. A culture may elect to use its own resources (as ‘horsepower’ for a steam locomotive engine) for the new item Hoffer, (2002). The present research aims at examining the English borrowed words into Urdu language. It begins with Introduction to the borrowing in general and English with reference to Urdu in particular. It also discusses various forms of borrowing. English language has been in contact with Urdu during the British colonization in India. This has resulted into borrowing so many lexicons into Urdu which must be studied linguistically. It is argued that borrowing has enhanced the communicative range of Urdu lexicons. This is the qualitative study in its nature. Loanwords have been categorized in different domains. Then, the historical background of Urdu and English language interaction until now, and the processes, reasons that are involved in the borrowing of loanwords in Urdu from English language has been discussed.

Legacies of a martial race: Sikh investment and implication in the US police state

British colonization in India had devastating social, psychological, and political consequences for Sikhs in nineteenth-century Punjab. Still, much of the diasporic community remains nostalgic for this era of the Sikh “martial race”—a British-crafted racial category through which Sikhs were constructed as biologically and culturally suited for imperial service and consequently received privileged status within the colonial hierarchy. Today, this nostalgia emerges as a commemorative mechanism in US Sikh advocacy projects to incorporate the Sikh turban and unshorn hair into US military and police uniform. Through an analysis of community narratives around publicized Sikh deaths, this article explores the impact of martial race commemoration on Sikh subjectivity formation. Delineating when and how private grief is transformed into public remembrance, I argue such commemorative frameworks in US Sikh advocacy projects inform which Sikh bodies are worthy of collective mourning by suturing Sikh bodies’ value to their service to US imperialism.

Bakha’s Identity as an Anglophilic Assimilado in the Context of a Colonized India: A Postcolonial Reading of Mulk Raj Anand's Untouchable

This study aimed to illustrate how Bakha's Subalternity is intricately woven with the establishment of his identity as an assimilado as well as Anglophilic in the context of a colonized India, and also exhibit how this Anglophilia and assimilation of Bakha have been illustrated by Mulk Raj Anand within his literary production titled Untouchable by conducting a postcolonial investigation of the selected text. It followed the unstructured mode of inquiry that is the Qualitative approach of research. The style used to design this paper is exploratory and descriptive. The findings of the paper revealed the way Bakha gets succumbed into the spiral of the culture and tradition of the British imperialists and starts to identify himself as an Anglophilic assimilado as a result of his failure to realize the oppressive, autocratic, and dominating natures of the British authoritative figures and the effects of colonization in India due to his subaltern status within the society, which is the outcome of the Repressive Ideology practiced by the Indian Hindu community promoting class discriminations and caste-conflicts. The study further revealed how Bakha's Anglophilia and assimilation have found their outlets within the selected text through the employment of numerous significant postcolonial terms and concepts including ‘mimicry’, ‘mimic men’, and the psychopathological concept associated with colonialism that reveals the psychological effects of colonialism, which results in psychological inadequacy that eventually causes Anglophilia and makes a colonized person an assimilado. Lastly, this particular paper is helpful for academicians willing to gather more knowledge about the postcolonial notions like subalternity, Anglophilia, and assimilation and study how they are related to one another.

The Ecology of Nationalism and the Representation of Lower Castes in the Novel Tamas

The colonization of India had awful consequences on the lives of people as the nation was severely affected by problems like poverty, illiteracy, unhygienic and callous living producing, in addition to the already prevailing sociological and economic problems, environmental and conservational crisis, the root cause of which was to be found in the incessant exploitation of natural resources by the ruling European colonial powers in India. Resultantly, the Gandhian struggle for independence could not restrict itself merely to the primary objective of acquiring a politically independent statehood for India, but it had to keep on its agenda also problems of ecology, hygiene and conservation. The novel Tamas describes analogous labors made by the congress working committee volunteers in the Muslim area despite antagonism by the Muslim League workers. This ecology of nationalism, however, could not sustain long as the ecological purity of a mosque and a temple, in retaliatory action, was polluted by the perpetrators. The novel regularly, throughout the narrative, establishes a connection between the ideas of pureness and dirtiness and the consequential communal clashes in the city by showing how harmony and mutual veneration for each other’s community, the so-called ecology of nationalism and political unity, was thwarted by an error of Nathu, a member of the lower caste community. In a broad sense, the character of Nathu is presented representatively in a way to demonstrate how the act of a socially impure community was accountable for the fall of the ecology of Indian nationalism rather than the political desires and mistakes of leadership.

Comic Empires: Imperialism in Cartoons, Caricature, and Satirical Art

Comic Empires: Imperialism in Cartoons, Caricature, and Satirical Art

Illegitimacy under Hindu Law: A Case for its Abandonment

Abstract Under Hindu law, while anciently an illegitimate child was not an alien to his kin as under Common law, the position under the codified Hindu law stood altered, likely as a consequence of the English influence during the colonization of India. This paper, critiquing the treatment of illegitimate children under Hindu law traces the historical link between legitimacy and marriage, and its legal and sociological basis. This link has been perpetrated across societies, over time, and through legal and moral media, and has also been justified by sociologists as a means to preserve the society, by preserving its fundamental constituent – a normative family. The Indian State machinery (courts, the government and the legislature) too suffers from an anxiety to protect the normative family (barring notable exceptions), and has been dismissive of any alternative, notwithstanding that the rights of illegitimate children is the collateral damage. Regardless, today this distinction contravenes the constitutional safeguards in India. More importantly, with the acceptance of novel reproductive techniques (such as artificial insemination), and familial setups (same-sex relationships), the sociological basis for the preservation of this distinction has become irrelevant. Accordingly, this paper argues for this distinction to be removed from the statutes, which would benefit all the three stakeholders relevant to the illegitimacy equation, namely, the unwed father, the mother, and the child.

Knowledge and colonization in India: historiographical reflections based on the case of antiquarian knowledge

Cet article porte sur les conditions de production, de diffusion et de mise en valeur des savoirs antiquaires en Inde entre la fin du XVIIIe siècle et le milieu du XIXe siècle, période qui correspond au premier siècle colonial. Les savoirs antiquaires, qui désignent les savoirs liés aux vestiges textuels et matériels du passé que sont les antiquités, sont examinés au regard de l’historiographie indianiste des savoirs coloniaux, et plus particulièrement des travaux de Bernard Cohn, dont une lecture critique est proposée. Après avoir dressé un état des lieux historiographique, l’article analyse la façon dont la contribution des Indiens à l’élaboration des savoirs antiquaires a été minimisée, voire effacée, à la faveur de la domination coloniale et des stratégies savantes des administrateurs britanniques. Il présente également des outils pour étudier les différentes ramifications entre ces savoirs et le fonctionnement de l’administration coloniale.

‘On the Colonization of India’ (1829): Public meetings, debates and later disputes

This article returns to the scene of excitement that comprised the topic labelled ‘On the Colonization of India’ in the newspapers and journals of 1829, an area explored once before by a group of established Left historians through debates on the specific issue of the ‘Bengal Renaissance’ in the mid-1970s. Beginning with the misreading by these historians of particular extracts from the Bengal Hurkaru in constructing their arguments for or against the place of Rammohun Roy in the making of modern India, I nevertheless draw back here from larger abstractions of categorisation to focus tightly instead on this issue of ‘colonisation’ alone, exploring the arguments for and against free trade in the run up to the renewal of the East India Company (EIC)’s charter in 1833 as they unfolded in Calcutta. The objective is to delink the moment from the historical narratives of English liberalism, or free trade, or later Indian nationalism, reading the archive again to bring in local perspectives that have not been looked at so far, such as the unexpected voice of Young Bengal, speaking against colonisation, not for it, as it seems Rammohun does. As a result of concentrating on the local scene in Calcutta, a different picture emerges of the varied interests that, while never arguing against British rule, were nevertheless in conflict when taking a position for or against both the company’s monopoly and the future colonisation of India.

Neolithic phylogenetic continuity inferred from complete mitochondrial DNA sequences in a tribal population of Southern India.

The subsequent human migrations that dispersed out of Africa, both prehistoric and historic and colonization of India by modern humans is unanimous, and phylogeny of major mitochondrial DNA haplogroups have played a key role in assessing the genetic origin of people of India. To address more such events, complete mitogenomes of 113 Melakudiya tribe of Southern India were sequenced and 46 individuals showed the presence of west Eurasian autochthonous haplogroups HV14 and U7. Phylogenetic analysis revealed two novel subclades HV14a1b and HV14a1b1 and sequences representing haplogroup U7 were included under previously described subclade U7a3a1a2* specific to India. Moreover, the present analysis on complete mtDNA reveals addition information of the spread and distribution of west Eurasian haplogroups in southern India, in tracing an unexplored genetic link between Melakudiya tribe with the people of Iranian Plateau, South Caucasus, and Central Asia. Coalescence ages of HV14 and U7a3a1a2* trees in the present study dates ~ 16.1 ± 4.3 and ~ 13.4 ± 5.6kya respectively.

The Electrification of Colonial Calcutta: Role of the Innovators, Bureaucrats and Foreign Business Organization, 1880–1940

From as early as the 1880s until today, electrical power has served as a useful medium for ushering an urban industrial era throughout the world. This article examines the process of electrification in a colonial setting—Calcutta, the capital of British India till 1911. Access to electricity depended upon economics and technological advances, as well as a combination of local community and regional characteristics such as location, landscape, demographics, politics and culture. Western techno-scientific discourse occupied an extremely important place in the colonization of India. It is known that Western technology and ideas manipulated various technological projects in the colony, including electrification. Was there something unique about Calcutta and its plan that led to the electrification of a colonial metropolis almost simultaneously with other Western industrial nations? By the middle of the twentieth century, electricity, with its elaborate infrastructure of wires, generation stations and poles, emerged as the industrial era’s most prominent symbol of progress in Calcutta. The Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation Ltd (CESC), with its head office in London, played the most vital role, debating and resolving various technical questions, such as load factor, fuel sources, operating generation stations and electricity supply to industry, traction and population centres. This article, based on extensive archival research, shows how, despite colonial derivatives, the resulting electrical systems were locally initiated and customized to the needs and characteristics of the region.

How Did the West Usurp the Rest? Origins of the Great Divergence over theLongue Durée

AbstractTraditional explanations of the “rise of the West” have located the sources of Western supremacy in structural or long-term developmental factors internal to Europe. By contrast, revisionist accounts have emphasized the conjunctural and contingent aspects of Europe's ascendancy, while highlighting intersocietal conditions that shaped this trajectory to global dominance. While sharing the revisionist focus on the non-Western sources of European development, we challenge their conjunctural explanation, which denies differences between “West” and “East” and within Europe. We do so by deploying the idea of uneven and combined development (UCD), which redresses the shortcomings found on both sides of the debate: the traditional Eurocentric focus on the structural and immanent characteristics of European development and the revisionists’ emphasis on contingency and the homogeneity of Eurasian societies. UCD resolves these problems by integrating structural and contingent factors into a unified explanation: unevenness makes sense of the sociological differences that revisionists miss, while combination captures the aleatory processes of interactive and multilinear development overlooked by Eurocentric approaches. From this perspective, the article examines the sociologically generative interactions between European and Asian societies’ development over thelongue duréeand traces how the breakdown of feudalism and the rise of capitalism in Europe were fundamentally rooted in and conditioned by extra-European structures and agents. This then sets up our conjunctural analysis of a central yet underappreciated factor explaining Europe rise to global dominance: the disintegration of the Mughal Empire and Britain's colonization of India.

The beginning of British Colonization of India. Lord Robert Clive

The beginning of British Colonization of India. Lord Robert Clive

Leadership Lessons in Global Nursing and Health From The Nightingale Letter Collection at the University of Alabama at Birmingham

This article analyzes the components of Florence Nightingale's visionary leadership for global health and nursing within the historical context of Great Britain's colonization of India. The descriptive study used the qualitative approach of narrative analysis to analyze selected letters in the Nightingale Letter Collection at the University of Alabama at Birmingham that Nightingale wrote to or about Dr. Thomas Gillham Hewlett, a physician and health officer in Bombay, India. The authors sought to increase understanding of Nightingale's visionary leadership for global nursing and health through a study of the form and content of the letters analyzed as temporally contextualized data, focusing on how the narratives are composed and what is conveyed. Several recurring themes central to Nightingale's leadership on global nursing and health emerge throughout these letters, including health and sanitation reform, collaborative partnerships, data-driven policy development, and advocacy for public health. These themes are illustrated through her letters to and testimony about Dr. Thomas Gillham Hewlett in her vivid descriptions of health education and promotion, data-driven policy documents, public health and sanitation advice, and collaboration with citizens, medicine, policy makers, and governments to improve the health and welfare of the people of India. The focus on leadership in nursing as a global construct highlights the lessons learned from University of Alabama at Birmingham's Nightingale Letter Collection that has relevance for the future of nursing and health care, particularly Nightingale's collaboration with policy leaders, her analysis of data to set policy agendas, and public health reform centered on improving the health and well-being of underserved populations.

Indian Management Ideas – Part-2: Human Resource Management

Christopher Columbus set out on sail to find the sea route to India attracted by her popular wealth and resources. History speaks that he landed in a place and thought that that was India. It came to be known as the United States of America later. Thus America was just an accidental discovery in the quest to reach India. History also speaks that many countries were attracted by the riches of India and later resulted in colonization of India and used her wealth and resources. Thus it is very obvious that it is the wealth, prosperity and resources of India that attracted people from faraway lands. It is also clear that wealth and prosperity are not automatic but are a function of ‘management’ knowledge and skill. India was wealthy and prosperous which attracted many foreign raiders. Therefore India must have had its own knowledge and skill in ‘management’ given the fact that management as a field of specialization came into being in the West only in 19th century. However the great epic Mahabharata stands tall as a management teacher through a composite and complicated case with case-lets galore in it. Also the Panchatantra stand out as an excellent piece of work on management using case-method even 5000 years ago, before the case-method of teaching management was discovered in the West! Moreover it is generally acknowledged that economic ideas originated from two sources namely Hebrew and Hindus. Management is a sub-set of the Economics study-set. Thus it can be said that management ideas originated from India also. The Indian wisdom on management, including human resource management, has long remained ignored. In all areas of human activities, all resources like buildings, machines, policies, rules, regulation, etc. of any organization are only passive factors by their very nature in not only in day-to-day activities but also in the development of the organization. The only factor that is active by their nature is the human resource. It is only this active resource that turns all other passive resources into active resources to carry out the basic functions of an organization. The role of human factor has gained importance only very recently and hence is aptly renamed as human capital. Indian scholars also had recognized the crucial human element ages ago. For instance, in Mahabharata, from the two options of either Lord Krishna’a army or Lord Krishna, Duriyodhan choose the services of Lord Krishna’s army whereas the Yudhistar opted for the human element by choosing the services of Lord Krishna, the army’s leader, and the final victory sided the Pandavas with significant contributions by Lord Krishna. Indian scholars view a human being as a three-in-one entity namely body, mind and soul whereas the Western thought views a human being as ‘body’ only. Thus the western theories and methods are focused on managing the ‘body’ whereas the Indian scholars treat the body as an instrument of the mind and is energized by the soul. They go to the extent of viewing the behavior of body as the behavior of mind. There exist Indian literature rich in principles and methods related to human resource management. These contributions to human resource management practices from India are rich and very effective but long remained ignored by the scholars. For instance, Lord Buddha and recently Mahatma Gandhiji have all proved the effectiveness of Indian human resource practices to the utter disbelief of the rest of the world. This paper presents some of these human resource management ideas from only a few Indian works that date back thousands of years, yet not only consistent with the most modern views but also realistic and relevant for practicing managers.

“To Make a Curry the India Way”: Tracking the Meaning of Curry Across Eighteenth-Century Communities

With attention to the cultural mobility of local and global foodstuffs, this study examines the movement of curry as a product of England's colonization of India. The concept of a curry was developed by the British East India Company while stationed in India. Members of the EIC would describe any saucy Indian dish as a “curry,” and when these men returned to England, they brought back their desire for Indian food. The movement of curry helped to shape its definition as a colonial product of India incorporated into English cuisine. By tracking curry and curry powder from its inception as an East India Company staple to the cookbooks and kitchens of eighteenth century Britain, this study shows how the distinct locality of curry changed its meaning over time.

Phylogenetic analysis, based on EPIYA repeats in the cagA gene of Indian Helicobacter pylori, and the implications of sequence variation in tyrosine phosphorylation motifs on determining the clinical outcome

The population of India harbors one of the world’s most highly diverse gene pools, owing to the influx of successive waves of immigrants over regular periods in time. Several phylogenetic studies involving mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosomal variation have demonstrated Europeans to have been the first settlers in India. Nevertheless, certain controversy exists, due to the support given to the thesis that colonization was by the Austro-Asiatic group, prior to the Europeans. Thus, the aim was to investigate pre-historic colonization of India by anatomically modern humans, using conserved stretches of five amino acid (EPIYA) sequences in the cagA gene of Helicobacter pylori. Simultaneously, the existence of a pathogenic relationship of tyrosine phosphorylation motifs (TPMs), in 32 H. pylori strains isolated from subjects with several forms of gastric diseases, was also explored. High resolution sequence analysis of the above described genes was performed. The nucleotide sequences obtained were translated into amino acids using MEGA (version 4.0) software for EPIYA. An MJ-Network was constructed for obtaining TPM haplotypes by using NETWORK (version 4.5) software. The findings of the study suggest that Indian H. pylori strains share a common ancestry with Europeans. No specific association of haplotypes with the outcome of disease was revealed through additional network analysis of TPMs.

Management in Thirukkural

Christopher Columbus setout on sail to find the sea route to India attracted by her popular wealth and resources. History speaks that he landed in a place and thought that that was India. It came to be known as the United States of America later. Thus America was just an accidental discovery in the quest to reach India. History also speaks that many countries were attracted by the riches of India and later resulted in colonization of India and used her wealth and resources. Thus it is very obvious that it is the wealth, prosperity and resources of India that attracted people from far away lands. It is also clear that wealth and prosperity are not automatic but are a function of 'management' knowledge and skill. India was wealthy and prosperous which attracted many foreign raiders. Therefore India must have had its own knowledge and skill in 'management' given the fact that management as a field of specialization came into being in the West only in 19th century. However the great epic Mahabharata stands tall as a management teacher through a composite and complicated case with case-lets galore in it. Also the Panchatantra stand out as an excellent piece of work on management using case-method even 5000 years ago, before the case-method of teaching management was discovered in the West! Moreover it is generally acknowledged that economic ideas originated from two sources namely Hebrew and Hindus. Management is a sub-set of the Economics study-set. Thus it can be said that management ideas originated from India also. The Indian wisdom on management has long remained ignored. The aim of this paper is to rediscover one of the India's ideas on management namely the definition of management based on one of the Indian works namely Thirukkural that is only 2000 years old and popular for its presentation of wisdom using only seven words.

Psychiatry, colonialism and Indian civilization: A historical appraisal

Byline: Shridhar. Sharma Dr Basu's paper on 'Historicizing Indian psychiatry'[1] is a wonderful read, written in a lucid and powerful prose. While some authors may write better prose than many trained historians, they do not necessarily possess the rigour and insight which a trained historian brings to the subject. Scientific evaluation of social-medical-historical facts is a complex process, and must be ideally based on rational, objective and transparent criteria to help generate valid conclusions. It is also true that assessment of historical facts is often guided by one's ideology, experience and knowledge in the field. Apparently faulty assessment and subjective bias is not uncommon in the field of history while arriving at a conclusion. It is apparent that Dr Basu's intent is more in showing the impact of colonization than contribution of other factors in the development of psychiatry in India. Secondly, the paper is based heavily on Michael Foucault's work and his views on development of psychiatric thought, which is biased by his anti-psychiatry ideology. Further, Foucault's good work was focused mainly on the 'interpretation of madness in the context of European civilization' and not of Indian civilization. Thirdly, the paper is also greatly influenced by the belief that history writing has been decided by the West, which is conventionally considered as a repository of value and truth with an absolute right to define what is truth and what is exciting, including the culture and social issues of a non-western country. Though strange, this notion is a fact. Fourthly, those who work in the field of psychology are familiar with the faulty perception which is influenced by personal biases. The uniqueness of psychiatry as a medical specialty lies in the fact that there is a biological and psychosocial dichotomy. It is necessary for historians to appreciate this dichotomy to understand the phenomena of mental illness. There is something unique about the field of psychiatry, as psychiatry is primarily a medical specialty; yet, it has close proximity with the social sciences and cultural issues. This causes some discomfort to those who are not sensitive to these issues. To illustrate, a typical western writer's attitude is well-reflected in the views of W.S. Shaw (1932)[2] who stated that 'in spite of over-crowding of mental hospitals the absence of a definitely expressed public opinion continues to delay improvement under present condition of government in India and the noisy section of population led by Mahatma Gandhi who prefers the Ayurvedic and other indigenous systems to our modern methods of treatment'. Such conclusions are similar to the views that the first freedom movement of 1857 in India was perceived as 'Mutiny' by western writers. Keeping the above views, we will examine the basic concept of mind and mental health in the context of colonization of India. It is true that during the period of colonization some elements of science were brought to psychiatry, but philosophy, culture and religion were already deep-rooted in the Indian tradition. James Mills,[3] a historian, states that 'a concern with mental health has long been a part of Indian cultures which evolved a variety of ways of attempting to understand and negotiate psychological disorder'. History is a kind of screen in which the past lightens the present and the present brightens the future. The ancient Indian thought emphasized the theory of unity of body and soul and also explained how to deal with the health and mental health problems in psychosomatic way. These concepts are part of Indian history and not borrowed from colonial rulers. To depend totally on the western viewpoint that all cultures (except the West) construct history as a myth rather than on empirical facts will not lead us to the meaning of history, because meaning itself cannot derive solely from the western viewpoint. Eminent Indian philosopher S. …

Prehistoric human colonization of India.

Human colonization in India encompasses a span of at least half-a-million years and is divided into two broad periods, namely the prehistoric (before the emergence of writing) and the historic (after writing). The prehistoric period is divided into stone, bronze and iron ages. The stone age is further divided into palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic periods. As the name suggests, the technology in these periods was primarily based on stone. Economically, the palaeolithic and mesolithic periods represented a nomadic, hunting-gathering way of life, while the neolithic period represented a settled, food-producing way of life. Subsequently copper was introduced as a new material and this period was designated as the chalcolithic period. The invention of agriculture, which took place about 8000 years ago, brought about dramatic changes in the economy, technology and demography of human societies. Human habitat in the hunting-gathering stage was essentially on hilly, rocky and forested regions, which had ample wild plant and animal food resources. The introduction of agriculture saw it shifting to the alluvial plains which had fertile soil and perennial availability of water. Hills and forests, which had so far been areas of attraction, now turned into areas of isolation. Agriculture led to the emergence of villages and towns and brought with it the division of society into occupational groups. The first urbanization took place during the bronze age in the arid and semi-arid region of northwest India in the valleys of the Indus and the Saraswati rivers, the latter represented by the now dry Ghaggar-Hakra bed. This urbanization is known as the Indus or Harappan civilization which flourished during 3500-1500 B.C. The rest of India during this period was inhabited by neolithic and chalcolithic farmers and mesolithic hunter-gatherers. With the introduction of iron technology about 3000 years ago, the focus of development shifted eastward into the Indo-Gangetic divide and the Ganga valley. The location of the Mahabharata epic, which is set in the beginning of the first millennium B.C., is the Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga-Yamuna doab (land between two rivers). Iron technology enabled pioneering farmers to clear the dense and tangled forests of the middle and lower Ganga plains. The focus of development now shifted further eastward to eastern Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar which witnessed the events of the Ramayana epic and rise of the first political entities known as Mahajanapadas as also of Buddhism and Jainism. The second phase of urbanization of India, marked by trade, coinage, script and birth of the first Indian empire, namely Magadha, with its capital at Pataliputra (modern Patna) also took place in this region in the sixth century B.C. The imposition by Brahmin priests of the concepts of racial and ritual purity, pollution, restrictions on sharing of food, endogamy, anuloma (male of upper caste eligible to marry a female of lower caste) and pratiloma (female of upper caste ineligible to marry a male of lower caste) forms of marriage, karma (reaping the fruits of the actions of previous life in the present life), rebirth, varnashrama dharma (four stages of the expected hundred-year life span) and the sixteen sanskaras (ceremonies) on traditional occupational groups led to the birth of the caste system - a unique Indian phenomenon. As a consequence of the expansion of agriculture and loss of forests and wildlife, stone age hunter-gatherers were forced to assimilate themselves into larger agriculture-based rural and urban societies. However, some of them resisted this new economic mode. To this day they have persisted with their atavistic lifestyle, but have had to supplement their resources by producing craft items or providing entertainment to the rural population.

Migration, Remittances and the Himalaya

Migration, Remittances and the Himalaya