Labour Colonies Research Articles

From common land to farmhouses: agricultural penal colonies and the project of modern rurality in Sardinia, Italy

Between the 1860s and 1960s, sixteen colonie penali agricole were built in Italy, half of them on the island of Sardinia. As the tangible instances of a geopolitical project that intertwined penal and land reforms during a century of striking shifts in political regimes, they can be read as sites of intersecting colonialisms where domestic colonialism — in line with Barbara Arneil’s reading — mixed over time with elements of internal self-colonisation and settler colonialism. This essay provides a spatial analysis of the Sardinian agricultural penal colonies, framing them within similar experiences of domestic labour colonies in Europe: the 1840 penal colony at Mettray and the 1820s Dutch ‘Colonies of Benevolence’. It will elaborate on the role that large-scale spatial reasoning played at crucial moments of political transition in Italy. Borrowing from Gary Field’s insights, it will show how they were designed as germinal ‘institutions of dispossession’ set to accelerate what local historian Gian Giacomo Ortu calls the ‘ideological and moral offensive against feudalism, commonality and pastoralism’ in Sardinia. It will further discuss their impact in reshaping this rural domain in relation with the wider civilian agrarian plans of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries: Internal Colonisation, Fascist Plans of Reclamation and Repopulation, and post-war Agrarian Reform.

Wastelands of empire, sites of ‘salvation’: landscapes of ‘reform’ in late nineteenth-century Germany

This essay traces a rural network of modern carceral and internal colonial land enclosures developed in late nineteenth-century Germany. It considers the extent to which long-running debates over the value of penal colonialism and deportation for the management of societal ‘threats’ influenced shifts in carceral policy of the time, long thought to have been largely determined by the welfare reform movement of the Wilhelmine period and the notion of ‘protective supervision’ that prevailed in its wake. It is argued that certain aspects of convict colonialism, publicly interrogated by German legal theorists, were quietly adapted by carceral reform practices beginning in the 1880s. This essay speculates on the spatial and territorial implications of those adaptations, examining the little-known prison labour camps located in the sewage farms of Berlin after 1890, the model establishment of the rural labour colony founded by the pastor Friedrich von Bodelschwingh, and the Prussian Settlement Commission’s anti-Slavic, anti-migrant program of internal colonisation, established by the German Ministry of Agriculture in 1886. It is argued that links between them were crystallised in a racialised topos of waste, framed by an emergent environmental discourse that served to sediment difference. Together, these institutions of correction, the architectures of enclosure that attended them, and the segregated geographies that resulted from them transformed the meaning and administration of Germany’s rural landscape and demarcate modern imperial planning practices that mobilised space, territory, and environment as mediums of ‘progressive’ reform and ‘protective supervision’ tied to increasingly regimented and policed forms of settlement.

Детские трудовые воспитательные колонии: роль и место в системе детских учреждений СССР в период Великой Отечественной войны и послевоенный период

Based on the study of normative legal acts, archival documents, previously published research results, the reasons and the process of creating children’s labor educational colonies in the USSR (hereinafter referred to as CLEC) are analyzed. The dynamics of changes in their number, composition, special types of CLEC are presented, the basic regulatory legal framework for their creation and activity, the order of direction and the main aspects of the maintenance of children are revealed. The tasks of the CLEC are formulated in the light of the general direction of combating child homelessness and neglect in the specific conditions of wartime and the first post-war decade. According to the results of the study, it is concluded that children’s labor educational colonies filled the gap between orphanages (where “ordinary” street children were sent) and labor colonies (which were places of deprivation of liberty). This approach made it possible to separate children and adolescents who committed minor offenses from both those who were not connected with the criminal environment (going to orphanages) and those who committed serious crimes (serving sentences in labor colonies), providing educational impact taking into account the characteristics of this category of children and adolescents. It is noted that the exception were teenagers convicted of unauthorized departure from craft, railway schools.

Corrective Labor Colony ‘Perm‑36’ in the Memory of Neighbouring Villages Residents

Corrective Labor Colony ‘Perm‑36’ in the Memory of Neighbouring Villages Residents

Workplace stressors and their association with hair cortisol concentrations among ready-made garment workers in Bangladesh: A cross-sectional study.

Psychosocial working conditions of ready-made garment (RMG) workers have been associated with poorer self-reported health outcomes. However, no such research has been done with respect to physiological markers that are considered to reflect stress. We consequently aimed to investigate associations of psychosocial working conditions with such a marker, that is, hair cortisol, among RMG workers in Bangladesh. We conducted semi-structured face-to-face interviews in labor colonies in the Mirpur area, Dhaka, Bangladesh, in February and March 2021 with individuals identifying as garment workers. The interview inquired after various workplace stressors and resources (i.e., workplace support, workplace bullying, vertical trust, beneficial leadership, work-family conflict, and financial issues including savings, debts, financial obligations, and financial support). In addition, hair samples of 2 cm length were collected from participants. Hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) were determined based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Linear regression models were run to detect possible associations of workplace stressors and resources with HCC. In total, data of 576 participants were included in the analysis (71.9% female, mean age = 25.9 years). Mean HCC was 4.4 pg/mg (standard deviation = 2.1 pg/mg). The sole variable significantly associated with increased HCC was "having to keep your job to support your children or spouse financially" (β = 0.28 [95% confidence interval 0.02-0.55]). The sole workplace stressor significantly associated with increased HCC was the necessity to keep one's job to support children or spouse financially. This observation can, however, barely be disentangled from the fact that one has children/a spouse.

Людмила Алексеевна Вербицкая: «украинский старт» российского филолога

The activities of the prominent Russian organizer of science, scientist, and teacher of higher education, Lyudmila Alekseevna Verbitskaya (Bubnova), are extremely relevant. Studying of her experience allows us to form an effective work algorithm for our contemporary seeking to make a personal contribution to the development of national science and education. To conduct the study, the authors have used such methods as analysis, synthesis, generalization, comparison, as well as a number of purely historical methods: historical-systemic, comparative, retrospective. The publication is to analyze the previously unpublished documents from the archive of the Ivan Franko Lviv State University on Lyudmila Bubnova’s stay in the Lviv Children’s Labour Colony, where criminals and children of repressed Soviet citizens were kept together. Lyudmila Alekseevna Verbitskaya is a famous Russian philologist and organizer of science, the only female rector in the history of the St. Petersburg State University. Lyudmila Alekseevna began her career in Ukraine, being admitted to the Ivan Franko Lviv State University from the Lviv Children's Labor Colony, where she was kept as the daughter of an “enemy of the people.” The article is based on unique archival documents that permit to analyze the initial formation of the future philologist; among them L. A. Bubnova’s handwritten autobiography (1953), petition of the head of the department of children's colonies of the Lviv region, Major Chumakov, to the rector of the Ivan Franko Lviv State University for her admission to the faculty of philology (department of Russian philology), L. Bubnova's texts in Russian and Ukrainian written for entrance examination in the university, documentary data on her grades at entrance examination in Russian language and literature, Ukrainian language, history of the USSR, geography, and foreign language. Of interest is her personal data sheet, her academic certificate for the first year at the university with results of 8 exams and tests in the first semester and 12 tests and exams in the second semester, as well as her coursework. The authors conclude that the “Lviv period” in her life and education gave L. A. Verbitskaya (Bubnova) a launching pad for her future scientific and administrative career.

История становления библиотечной системы Танну – Тувинской Народной Республики (1921–1944 гг.)

By the time of the creation of the Tuvan People’s Republic in 1921, libraries of Buddhist monasteries and the Russian population already existed on its territory. Since 1922, libraries have also been created through the executive committee of the Russian Self-governing Labor Colony. At the end of the 1920s, the organization of political educational institutions began, the system of which included mobile libraries, as well as stationary ones designed to popularize printed publications and reading among Tuvan Arats. On the eve of the TNR’s accession to the Soviet Union in October 1944, the number of local libraries reached 47: the State Library, the libraries of the Scientific Committee and the State Museum, four Khoshun-district and some others.

Cercetări arheologice în fosta colonie de muncă forţată din perioada comunistă de la Peninsula, canalul Dunăre – Marea Neagră / Archaeological excavations in the former communist forced-labour camp from Peninsula, the Danube – Black Sea canal

Despite the fact that Peninsula occupies an important place in the memorial literature and historical works regarding the political repression in communist Romania, the materiality of this forced labour colony on the trail of the Danube ‒ Black Sea Canal has been neglected both by archaeological research and by the institutions responsible for memory and heritage protection policies. In order to redress this situation, in the fall of 2020, the first archaeological surveys were carried out at Peninsula, with the following objectives : to draw a general plan of the site ; to make a repertory and detailed description of constructions and facilities (buildings, cement platforms, water tanks, concrete structures) ; to identify those structures which, by their construction elements, can be dated in the 1950s ; to identify, map and document the material traces associated with the working sites of the former forced labour colony ; to document the cemeteries where, according to testimonies, political prisoners from Peninsula were buried. The present archaeological analysis goes beyond the legal distinctions (“ political prisoners”, “ common law prisoners”) and historical chronologies with which the dominant narratives regarding the communist period operate (“ first Canal”, “ second Canal” ; communism, post‑communism) and reveals another kind of memory – of the marginal, of the anonymous and abandoned, of those forgotten, at a given moment, by history. From this perspective, the ruins at Peninsula are relevant not only for understanding communist repression, but also for understanding the mechanisms of social marginalization which are perpetuated to this day.

Historical and legal conditions of functioning and evolution of criminal correspondence institutions in the Ukrainian SSR

Purpose. The purpose of the study is to determine the historical and legal conditions for the development of penal institutions in the Soviet period, their evolution in the context of the transformation of correctional labor legislation, as well as the main types of violations of the rights of persons who served sentences. Methods. The methodological basis of the research was a complex of general scientific, special scientific and philosophical methods, as well as the principles of historicism and objectivity. Results. It has been established that in relation to the Soviet criminal-executive system, it is expedient to apply the concept of the penal-correctional system, because from the first years of the formation of Soviet power, the maintenance of persons serving punishment was carried out primarily in labor colonies, and physical labor was understood as the main and effective way of atonement. The first legal act regulating the penal system was adopted on October 23, 1925, the Correctional Labor Code of the USSR, which established the priority of educational tasks for prisoners and the idea of correction of convicts. The Central Directorate of Correctional Labor Camps and Labor Settlements of the NKVD («GULAG») became a certain symbol of Soviet power and a vivid example of the fact that the penal system was totalitarian. Throughout June 1941, we can talk about deliberate acts of terror and mass murders of prisoners in correctional facilities in Western Ukrainian regions. The post-war penal system was a combination of correctional labor colonies, separate camps (detention for a term of three years or more), labor colonies for minors, prisons, and transit and transfer points. The last normative-legal act that consolidated the structure of the Soviet criminal-executive system was adopted in 1970 «Correctional Labor Code of the Ukrainian SSR». Originality. The main stages of the development of the criminal correctional system of the Ukrainian SSR, as well as the historical and legal conditions for the emergence of criminal correctional institutions, have been established. Practical significance. The results of the research can be used in the process of historical and legal research, preparation of special courses.

Work–family conflict, financial issues and their association with self-reported health complaints among ready-made garment workers in Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study

ObjectivesThis study aims to quantify the degree of work–family conflict (WFC) and financial issues among ready-made garment (RMG) workers in Bangladesh and to investigate their potential associations with self-reported health outcomes.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional survey among 1118 RMG workers in labor colonies in Dhaka, Bangladesh, in February and March 2021. Descriptive analyses were performed to characterize WFC (i.e., family life disturbing the job or facing problems in family due to the job) and financial issues (i.e., savings, debt, financial obligations, financial support). We ran multivariable Poisson regression models to examine possible associations between WFC and financial issues and workers’ health (self-reported general health and 10 specific health complaints).ResultsWe found low levels of WFC, low levels of savings, moderate levels of debt, and high levels of financial obligations: virtually all workers agreed they had to keep their job to financially support their spouse, children or other relatives. Only about a third of workers expected they would be able to receive financial support in case of a job loss. Work–family conflict was positively associated with poor health but not consistently with specific symptoms. Financial support was negatively associated, whereas being indebted was weakly positively associated with poor health.ConclusionsOur findings suggest low levels of WFC among RMG workers but high levels of financial obligations. Work–family conflict was positively associated with poor health, but not consistently with specific symptoms. Being indebted was weakly positively associated with poor health. Future prospective studies are needed to confirm these findings.

Hair manifestations in factory workers with arsenic exposure in Hayatabad industrial estate Peshawar, Pakistan

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE: Arsenic is present both naturally and from manmade sources like factory effluents. Contamination by arsenic of the groundwater is a major source of health detriment in south-east Asian countries. The aim of this study was to identify levels of arsenic in drinking water sources and factory effluents and to analyse arsenic levels in hair samples from factory workers and their families, along with morphological changes in hair in industrial workers in Peshawar.
 METHODOLOGY: Water and hair samples were collected by random sampling from a labor colony of 81 factory and non-factory household members living and working in the same industrial estate and analyzed for arsenic. Hair morphology was carried out in histomorphology laboratory at Khyber Medical University, Peshawar. The results obtained from both groups were compared with normal hair histomorphology. The data was analyzed by using SPSS version 20.
 RESULTS: The arsenic level in drinking water, colony tube wells and households was not within the permissible level of WHO (10µg/L). The arsenic level in factory effluent was 68µg/l (Pakistan Government's acceptable level is 50µg/L). The difference was statistically significant p≤0.001 between the two groups, the factory workers had a relatively higher level of arsenic, ~34ppb, in their scalp hair. Hair arsenic level also came out to be <1.00µg/g. There was a wide variation in the histomorphology of the hair samples in both groups.
 CONCLUSION: Elevated levels of arsenic in factory effluent demonstrate improper decontamination. The arsenic levels were within permissible levels, long term effects cannot be ruled out.

Social stressors and social resources at work and their association with self-reported health complaints among ready-made garment workers in Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundBangladesh is one of the world’s largest garment exporters. Physical working conditions of garment workers are precarious and known to largely affect their health. Research on garment workers’ psychosocial working conditions, however, is scarce. We aimed to quantify psychosocial working conditions of garment workers and possible associations with workers’ health.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional survey among 1,118 ready-made garment (RMG) workers in labor colonies in Dhaka, Bangladesh, in February 2021. Descriptive analyses were performed to characterize social stressors (e.g., being bullied at work, poor leadership) and social resources at work (e.g., receiving support at work, vertical trust between management and employees, beneficial leadership) and workers’ health (self-reported overall health and 10 specific health complaints). To examine links of social stressors and social resources with self-reported health outcomes we ran multivariable Poisson regression models yielding prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI).ResultsWe found low to moderate levels of workplace bullying and high levels of poor leadership (i.e., supervisors not caring about workers’ problems). We also found high levels of social support, vertical trust and beneficial leadership (i.e., supervisors taking decisions free of bias). Garment workers frequently suffered from health complaints, first and foremost headache (68.3%), cold (55.3%), and back pain (50.7%). Health outcomes were poorer among workers who reported to be bullied at work versus not bullied (e.g., PR 1.55 [95% CI 1.32–1.92] for poor self-reported health when bullied by colleagues) and health was better among those reporting to feel supported versus unsupported (e.g., PR 0.61 [0.52–0.71] for poor self-reported health when supported by supervisor). Perceived vertical trust between workers and management was weakly associated with better health. Leadership behavior did not display a consistent pattern.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that working conditions of RMG workers are rather good (e.g., characterized by low levels of bullying and high levels of support, vertical trust and beneficial leadership). The majority of workers reported good or very good health, although health complaints were frequently mentioned, first and foremost headache, cold, and back pain. Associations between psychosocial working conditions and health indicate worse working conditions being associated with poorer health.

HISTORICAL PREREQUISITES, LEGAL STATUS AND PECULIARITIES OF ACTIVITIES OF CHILDREN’S COLONIES FOR MINORS IN THE USSR

The article reveals the historical preconditions for the creation and development of children’s colonies for minors in the USSR, their place in the process of combating child homelessness and neglect. Since the establishment of children’s colonies in 1918, their main task has been to organize the educational process for minors, although in practice the main emphasis was on labor education and the involvement of homeless children. Formally, such institutions for minors became institutions for the socialization of homeless and neglected children released from colonies. It was established that the detention of juveniles in labor colonies was intended, first, to isolate them from the influence of adult criminals, especially recidivists; secondly, through work and the educational process to form full members of society. Legally, the first legal act approving the legal status of juvenile colonies was the Correctional Labor Code of October 16, 1924. In accordance with the provisions declared in it, all juveniles in child labor colonies were divided into several categories, respectively to the age gradation that operated in the receivers-distributors. Moral and pedagogical abilities were also taken into account. Children’s colonies were part of the general system of correctional facilities, which were regulated by the Correctional Labor Code, but differed in different types of regime in which they operated. Children’s colonies differed from classical prisons in their education and labor education. Self-sufficient citizens aware of their rights and responsibilities were formed in the colonies. It is the labor colonies for juveniles that have become the main type of places for juveniles and homeless and neglected children. These facilities were not only to teach juvenile prisoners labor skills, but also to educate them according to their social status, age, mental and psychological abilities. Children’s labor colonies became part of the Gulag. As of 1939, there were 50 juvenile colonies in this system. It was established that children’s labor colonies stationed in the territory of the Ukrainian SSR were differentiated both in terms of terms of imprisonment for serious crimes and in terms of isolation of juvenile “recidivists” and violators of the regime. The formation of the network of children’s labor colonies was conditioned both by the desire to combat juvenile delinquency and by the attempt to apply educational measures to persons deprived of parental care, while using them as cheap labor.

The coloniality of labor: Migrant Black African youths' experiences of looking for and finding work in an Australian deindustrializing city

AbstractThis paper explores migrant Black African youths' experiences of looking for and finding work in Newcastle, a deindustrializing Australian city. Data for this paper were drawn from interviews conducted with young people who migrated to Australia as temporary and permanent residents. Drawing on concepts of coloniality, racialization, bodywork, and hidden labor, this paper demonstrates how, when looking for work, participants' names get attached to their racialized bodies—a situation which deems them as suitable or not for specific kinds of work. Their strategies of finding work differ according to their migration status; that is, temporary residents draw on their personal networks, whereas some permanent residents with full citizenship rights rely on social welfare support services to find work. However, irrespective of the different strategies used to find work, they all end up doing jobs that they described as “work which others do not wish to do.” I argue that these experiences re‐articulate the coloniality of labor because, as workers in these jobs, they play a crucial role in the economic transformation taking place in the city due to deindustrialization. This is not merely because they form part of the workforce responsible for working in unwanted jobs, but because they are also consumers of Newcastle's emerging welfare support and educational services sectors. The paper contributes to an understanding of how race shapes the labor market experiences of racialized youth in deindustrializing labor markets.

Indentured History in Lore: Theorizing the Communal Discourse Archive

ABSTRACT This article theorizes the discursive endeavors of indentured communities to archive history, through comparing Shani Mootoo’s Cereus Blooms at Night (1996) and Chang-Rae Lee’s On Such a Full Sea (2014). Set in fictional labor colonies in the Americas, the two antirealist narratives show how collective literary form reveals the persistent ways in which historical knowledge is recorded and circulated. Drawing on Rey Chow’s scholarship, the article contends that the assemblages of discourses and acts of lore-making manifested in both novels gesture to the alternative modes of recounting the untold histories of indentureship. I conceptualize the communal archive through three key frameworks: movement, network, and imagination. The disciplinary forces of the indenture system are theorized in movement, a term that explicates the workers’ liminal positions in the colony. Network captures each community’s dynamism, multiplicity, and cacophony. By paying attention to the gossip culture, I examine how gossip as discourse network redefines the unruly acts of collaboration among the indentured. Finally, my analysis identifies imagination as a conceptual agent that gives form to the rebellious network and promises its continuation. The polyphonic and motley communal archive offers a new method of engaging with diasporic literary texts that serve as alternative historical accounts for the footnoted and silenced.

Prostitution in socialist Yugoslavia: from Stalinism to the Yugoslav way

ABSTRACT This article explores how Yugoslav communists formulated their ideas about prostitution, and how these ideas informed their approach towards sex workers. Yugoslav communists’ attitudes towards prostitution were a complex combination of Stalinist gender policies, the Partisan experience of the Second World War, and attempts to find a Yugoslav path following conflict with the Soviet Union. The first postwar Yugoslav laws closely resembled Soviet models of the 1930s, but transferring a Soviet approach also meant adaptation for the Yugoslav setting. Yugoslav communists expected prostitution to disappear after the revolution and introduced harsh measures to punish sex workers. These punishments included forced labour, detainment in centres of ‘re-education’ and expulsion from their hometowns. Broader changes in attitudes towards women’s sexuality, however, led to a more lenient approach in the 1950s. The state opted to abolish labour colonies, ‘re-education’ centres and harsh administrative measures, but prostitution remained illegal. Finally, this article examines how prostitution was depicted in films, often the only platform within which sex workers were visible.

Массовые неповиновения заключенных в исправительно-трудовых лагерях послевоенного СССР

This paper studies mass disobedience among the prisoners of Soviet corrective labour camps (CLCs) during the post-war years (1945–1956) in the context of Soviet corrective labour policy of that time. Noteworthy, there have been conflicting assessments of this aspect of the history of the aforementioned institutions. This research is based on the systematic approach as well as on the principles of historicism and objectivity. The main trends of Soviet corrective labour policy in the wake of the Great Patriotic War are identified; the contradictory nature of this policy is pointed out. On the one hand, documents were adopted to strengthen the rule of law in CLCs, including ensuring the rights of prisoners (e.g., the 1947 Instruction on Regimes in Corrective Labour Camps and Colonies), while on the other hand, the conditions in these camps for certain categories of prisoners were getting more strict (e.g., special camps were established by the Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR in 1948). Further, the authors focus on revealing the main reasons behind mass disobedience of prisoners in the camps. In particular, during the post-war years more people were sent to CLCs convicted of aiding the Nazis in the temporarily occupied territories of the USSR, treason, espionage, sabotage, nationalist banditry, etc. According to the authors, in the overwhelming majority of cases it was these prisoners who organized large-scale mass disturbances, including protests. Disobedience on the part of prisoners was facilitated by the discrepancy between the imposed requirements and the actual conditions in the CLCs, as well as by the rudeness of the camp administration and some prisoners being strong ideological opponents of Soviet rule, etc. The fact that a significant number of prisoners were exempt from Beria’s amnesty (March 1953) acted as yet another catalyst. The authors come to the conclusion that, in spite of the large scale of prisoner disobedience in certain camps, it was generally not characteristic of the corrective labour system of the period under study.

Caring Masculinities and Race: On Racialized Workers and “New Fathers”

Karla Elliott defines caring masculinities as both embracing care and rejecting domination. Most work within critical studies on men and masculinities that engages with masculinities and care focuses on care yet sidelines non-domination. For caring masculinities to not be/come a “White” concept, this article argues for a broad grounding of caring masculinities in a rejection of all forms of domination and starts with race. Bringing research on the international division of reproductive labor together with fatherhood studies, the article illustrates systemic oppression within the field of care. It is here that privileged men manage to actualize ideals such as involved fatherhood by relying on a marginalized workforce—that simultaneously remains locked out of involved fathering—in the coloniality of labor. I close by advocating not for the “inclusion” of men in the margins but for exploding the dominating power that the center holds.

Становление и развитие отрядной системы содержания осужденных в практике советских и российских исправительных учреждений

The article focuses on the formation and development of the detachment (otryad) system for the maintenance of convicts. The author discusses the specificity of the organizational structure and its functioning of correctional institutions of the USSR and Russia. The structure of labour associations of prisoners, which was used during the construction of the White Sea-Baltic Canal, had significant shortcomings: many convicts, who did not belong to workers and peasants, found themselves outside the educational influence. Therefore, labour associations, which played a positive role at a certain stage, were substituted with construction teams and labour colonies as more progressive organizational structures. The detachment consisted of brigades and included 300-600 people, depending on the production type, scope of work, and available living space. The head of the detachment was appointed from among the prisoners of the detachment and, in case of release, had the right to remain in this position for free employment. The newly arrived prisoners were to undergo the sanitation and quarantine, after which they were enlisted in the existing detachments or formed new ones. The head of the detachment was the assistant foreman for the organization of labour and the deployment of the workforce. This person managed the detachment with the help of an assistant chief for everyday life (also a supply manager), two educators (a senior and a regular educator for a detachment of more than 400 people), a senior worker and supervisors. The detachment had its own household services within a special staff.

From the history of labor colonies for minors in the 40 - 50s of the XX century

From the history of labor colonies for minors in the 40 - 50s of the XX century