Colonial Latin America Research Articles

Beyond Black and Red: African-Native Relations in Colonial Latin America

Beyond Black and Red: African-Native Relations in Colonial Latin America

Merchant Guilds (Consulados de Comercio) in the Spanish World

AbstractRecent emphasis on the social and cultural history of colonial Latin America has lessened the former growth of economic and institutional history in the region. Yet there is still need for further research on economic elites and their institutions. Merchant guilds were an important element in the economic and judicial development of the Spanish world from the thirteenth to the nineteenth century. Beginning in Catalonia, they later appeared in Castile, and later yet in Spain's overseas dominions, providing import‐export merchants with a tribunal for commercial litigation and an institution for the protection and promotion of their commerce. Revitalization of the institution in the eighteenth century extended commercial monopolies to more merchant communities, but also established stronger state control over them. The institution declined and largely disappeared during the nineteenth century. Principal studies of the various consulados in Spain and the Indies are referenced in the endnotes.

JONATHAN EARL CARLYON. Andres Gonzalez de Barcia and the Creation of the Colonial Spanish American Library. (Studies in Book and Print Culture.) Buffalo, N.Y.: University of Toronto Press. 2005. Pp. 253. $55.00

This book assesses Andrés González de Barcia's contribution to Americanist scholarship, examining his bibliographical, editorial, and historiographical production. Barcia is well known among scholars of colonial Latin America for his role as the eighteenth-century editor of sources on American history that later became incorporated into the literary canon. Distancing himself from studies of the Latin American archive by Roberto González Echevarría and Anthony Higgins, Jonathan Earl Carlyon discusses Barcia's scholarship from the perspective of his mise en livre (things such as his editorial choices, printed page composition, and publishing practices), his creation of a biblioteca (a physical space, a collection, but more importantly a “forum where knowledge circulates” [pp. 12, 126–154]), and his production of an editorial paratext (the writing surrounding a text) as a privileged venue of scholarly output. Using approaches developed in the field of textual criticism (including issues of bibliography, editing, and book history), Carlyon seeks to establish Barcia's influence “in shaping the way we study colonial Latin America today” (p. 7).

Hispanic Baroques: Reading Cultures in Context (review)

Reviewed by: Hispanic Baroques: Reading Cultures in Context Aaron Ilika Hispanic Baroques: Reading Cultures in Context. Edited by Nicholas Spadaccini and Luis Martín-Estudillo. Hispanic Issues 31. Nashville: Vanderbilt UP, 2005. xxxvi + 322 pp. This collection of essays seeks to expand the possibilities of the term "Baroque" as a category, a concept, and a historical period. The volume brings together a host of useful approaches to the cultural manifestations of the Baroque period that are not limited to the literary alone. As the editors note in their introduction, the field of Early Modern Hispanic Studies seems to have overcome the purely negative perception of the Baroque as the decadent art of a dying empire. Rather, the explosion of recent studies, especially those related to Colonial Latin America, have led to a reconsideration of the ways in which the Baroque esthetic could be appropriated by all sorts of social agents. In this sense, many of the essays in the volume build on, revise, or respond to José Antonio Maravall's influential theory of the [End Page 323] Baroque as a conservative, top-down and mass-oriented social and historical structure, as delineated in his 1975 study La cultura del barroco. Análisis de una estructura histórica. The editors' introduction to the volume provides a helpful overview of recent developments in Baroque studies and traces the vicissitudes of the appellation. The remainder of the collection is divided into five sections that discuss specific problems related to the Baroque. Part I, "The Baroque and Its Dark Sides," deals with melancholy, desengaño and the monstrous aspects of the administration of the Habsburg Empire. The two essays in the section discuss the psychological strategies of domination utilized by the Habsburg Empire—the Baroque esthetic being one of them—as well as the deconstructive, delirious nature of the Baroque. Part II, "Baroque Anxieties and Strategies of Survival," illuminates many of the philosophical cruxes common to the Baroque such as the famous horror vacui, new forms of subjectivity, and violent antitheses such as self/other, nature/artifice, or seeming/being. It relates these cruxes to philosophical quandaries common to our own digital age and how we are still burdened by a fear of emptiness, the notion of which is so important to the Baroque. Parts III and IV, "Institutions and Subjectivities in Baroque Spain" and "Strategies of Identity in the Colonial Context," while seemingly divided by geographical locale, in fact similarly address problems common to both Iberian and American experiences: freedom and containment, social control, and emergent forms of subjectivity. The essays in these sections highlight problems of specific social classes, such as the urban bourgeoisie or American Creoles and how they utilized the Baroque to aid in constructing a collective identity. Part V, "The Baroque and Its Transgressive Recyclings," offers two excellent concluding essays by Mabel Moraña and Edward H. Friedman that both recap the collection and open spaces for further dialogue. They also note several problems with excessively liberating or inclusive (mis)readings of the Baroque in our own time of globalization. There are several key essays that should be highlighted here for the value of their contributions. First, Egginton's essay, "Of Baroque Holes and Baroque Folds," builds on his impressive earlier work in How the World Became a Stage and disputes Deleuze's hypothesis of folds outlined in Le pli: Leibniz et le Baroque. Egginton magisterially integrates wider debates about representation, Baroque artifice, and subjectivity in his contribution, concluding with a discussion of our problematic relationship to truth, as described by Gracián in El criticón. Second, Nelson's essay "From Hieroglyphic Presence to Representational Sign: An Other Point of View in the Auto Sacramental," provides a healthy dose of visual studies for the collection. Given that the Baroque was overwhelmingly visual, even in its poetry, it is quite fitting that the volume includes essays that consider not only theater or painting, but also emblems, an oft-neglected genre. Nelson takes pains to point [End Page 324] out the importance of the emblematic mode in the auto sacramental genre as it pertains to dramaturges such as Calderón and Sor Juana. As Nelson affirms, the emblem form plays...

Beyond Black and Red: African-Native Relations in Colonial Latin America. Edited by Matthew Restall. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005. Pp. xv, 303. Illustrations. Maps. Notes. Bibliography. Index. $45.00 cloth; $22.95 paper.

Beyond Black and Red: African-Native Relations in Colonial Latin America. Edited by Matthew Restall. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005. Pp. xv, 303. Illustrations. Maps. Notes. Bibliography. Index. 22.95 paper. - Volume 63 Issue 4

Beyond Black and Red: African–Native Relations in Colonial Latin America, and: To Intermix with Our White Brothers: Indian Mixed Bloods in the United States from Earliest Times to the Indian Removals (review)

Beyond Black and Red: African-Native Relations in Colonial Latin America. Edited by Matthew Restall. (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2005. Pp. xv, 303. Illustrations, maps. Cloth, $45.00; Paper, $22.95.)To Intermix with Our White Brothers: Indian Mixed Bloods in United States from Earliest Times to Indian Removals. By Thomas N. Ingersoll. (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2005. Pp. xxi, 450. Illustrations. Cloth, $39.95.)Reviewed by Bruce DainAmong sophisticated scholars, racism is no longer much of a thing. Racism, that is, is no longer treated as a potent entity in its own right, kind of thing that can cause or shape behavior in some easily determined way. Notions of racism as a kind of monolith or juggernaut derive in part from sources used by first generation of modern antiracist scholars, who mostly examined material written by or for elite whites and exposed vast common prejudices therein. The racism monolith crumbles, however, when scholarly attention turns to ordinary folk, white and nonwhite. Especially revealing is evidence surrounding mixing between whites and nonwhites, perhaps ultimate act of racial transgression. In place of racism writ large, complex cross-racial stories and models emerge, stories and models that encompass both nonwhite agency and white power and prejudice. The Restall collection and Ingersoll's book are both outstanding examples of this current vogue for studying hybridity and identity on margins.The nine articles assembled in Beyond Black and Red debunk hallowed idea of an unremitting hostility between Indians and Africans in colonial Latin America. This idea becomes largely a myth promoted by colonial administrators and other intent on a strategy of divide-and-conquer. Study of black-Indian interaction reveals instead that racial identity was highly localized throughout colonial Latin America and rarely if ever conformed entirely to European preconceptions or desires. Indeed, larger racial categories such as Indian and black either had no meaning at local community level, and hence little resonance with ordinary folk, or big categories ascribed a more local meaning than that intended by Europeans (10). Identity, that is, was informal (as opposed to racial formalism increasingly advocated by whites) and never reflected anything like a simple process of white domination. There could be blatant manipulation, as when a woman accused of being a mulata sorceress tried to prove that she was an Indian to avoid jurisdiction of Inquisition (which associated mulatas and witchcraft). Or on further study, seeming racial fears of blacks as criminal wolves preying on native Maya sheep in Guatemala and Yucatan resolve into rural fears of exploitive and sometimes black city-dwelling traders and middlemen-a pattern revealing less of unremitting hostility than opposite: the intensification of interaction between two groups and gradual breakdown of barriers between them (213). Over time, as interaction between natives and blacks intensified, identities became more complex and neat racial categories became harder and harder to maintain or impose, yielding frustration, fear, and backlash on part of colonial authorities and elites. These fears escalated to point that Spanish authorities in Mexico tried to use systema de castas as a form of racial apartheid to separate Spanish, mixed bloods, Indians, and blacks.In To Intermix with Our White Brothers, Ingersoll similarly demonstrates that on margins of American society and settlement there was extensive mixing between Indians and whites, dramatically more than most elite-minded white sources ever acknowledged. If European racial discrimination was rigid and unchanging, on-the-ground colonial interracial practices were local and situational (9). Colonists who aspired to respectability scorned mixture with Indians and tried to uphold an image of America as a place where could keep their bloodlines pure and nonwhites and poor knew their station. …

Kenneth J. Andrien (ed.), The Human Tradition in Colonial Latin America, Wilmington, DE.: Scholarly Resources, 2002, pp. xviii+321, $72.00, $24.95 pb.

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The Precarious Sustainability of Democracy in Latin America

This article examines the contrast between the expectations aroused by the establishment of democratic regimes and the poor results of neo-liberal economic policies, the consequent disillusionment and loss of faith in democracy and neo-liberal economic policies, and the reactions and responses that are currently taking place. Particular attention is paid to the surfacing of long-repressed and/or dormant sectors of the population in countries with large poor indigenous and/or black populations. This essay begins with some references to the sociopolitical, institutional, and cultural background inherited from colonial Latin America. It then refers to the development and modernization processes that took place during the second half of the 19 th century and to the consequences of the Great Depression, which through a widened and more active role of the state in the economic, social, and international realms changed the Latin American development and modernization scenarios from the 1940s to the 1970s. This is followed by a reference to the consequences of the onset of the globalization process in the 1970s, the debt and development crises of the early 1980s, and the dramatic change from state-centric to market-centric economic policies, leading to the coincidence of the adoption of free market economics on the one hand and the establishment of electoral democracies on the other. The last section refers to the revival of the structuralist approach to development of the 1950s to the 1970s, renewed and updated in the light of a critique of its earlier shortcomings and of the new circumstances of the globalization process.

Beyond Black and Red: African–Native Relations in Colonial Latin America

Beyond Black and Red: African–Native Relations in Colonial Latin America. Matthew Restall, ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005. 303 pp.

MATTHEW RESTALL, editor. Beyond Black and Red: African- Native Relations in Colonial Latin America. (Dia- logos.) Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. 2005. Pp. xv, 303. Cloth $45.00, paper $22.95

This newly published collection is a welcome addition to the University of New Mexico Press's Diálogos series, designed specifically for course-adoption books on Latin America. Essays included in the volume encompass the diverse regions of Latin America under European colonial rule. In his introduction, editor Mathew Restall discusses the book's predominant theme of the “hostility-harmony dialectic,” which is articulated in the three “arenas of identity, community, and cultural change” (pp. 4–5). Restall's introduction is followed by Ben Vinson III and Restall himself (chapter one), who maintain that in colonial Spanish America black and native soldiers fought together as comrades as well as against each other. Jane Landers (chapter two) observes similar black-native relations in the case of colonial Spanish Florida borderlands. Stuart B. Schwartz and Hal Langfur (chapter three) meticulously trace the extremely complicated history of native-black interactions in the case of Brazil, where “[b]eing ‘Indian’ is sometimes a way of not being black” (p. 107). In chapter four, Norma Angélica Castillo Palma and Susan Kellogg examine the important gender roles among Nahuas and Afro-Mexicans in the Central Mexican town of Cholua during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Both Renée Soulodre-La France (chapter five) and Chris Lane (chapter six) focus on the mines, where legally free natives and enslaved Africans worked side by side. According to Soulodre-La France, black-native relations in Nueva Granada (Colombia) were conflictive and antagonistic as both subordinate groups attempted to benefit from the colonial legal system. By contrast, Lane maintains that in the Spanish American gold and silver mine camps, African slaves and indigenous peoples widely cooperated, intermixed, and even intermarried, “to survive and to keep digging” (p. 180). Black-Mayan relations in colonial Guatemala and Yucatan is the topic of chapter seven by Christopher Luz and Restall, who examine various intensified intragroup interactions in both urban and rural settings. The result was the breakdown of the original group boundaries, despite the Spaniards' attempts to keep blacks and Mayans apart from each other by fostering prejudice between them. Anthropologist Neil L. Whitehead contributes an outstanding essay (chapter eight) on ethnic transgression in the case of northern South America and the Caribbean, where “black” phenotypes in the indigenous populations have been read as “red.” Patrick J. Carroll (chapter nine) also finds that in colonial Mexico the “natives” and “blacks” lived more in harmony than in constant conflict and antagonism. Carroll attributes the Spaniards' official reports of allegedly frequent black-native confrontations to their continuous efforts to keep power in their own hands.

Recent Trends in Gender Studies: Early Modern Spain and Colonial Latin America

Recent Trends in Gender Studies: Early Modern Spain and Colonial Latin America

Breve historia de la esclavitud en el Perú: Una herida que no deja de sangrar

In Breve historia de la esclavitud en el Perú, Carlos Aguirre surveys three hundred years of African slavery, from the Spanish Conquest to abolition in 1854. The volume is an important addition to the literature on slavery in Peru and the Americas, as well as the social history of colonial Peru. Aguirre tackles an important subject with ease and produces a very accessible analysis.The author focuses on the social and human aspects of slavery, rather than its economic and political effects. Aguirre aims at illuminating Peru’s present-day culture, influenced in innumerable ways by the traditions brought from Africa and the emergence of autochthonous Peruvian-African traditions. He shows how slavery shaped the cultural traditions of Afro-Peruvians and their descendents; some of these traditions have lasted until the present day.Breve historia highlights how the colonial state and its laws and courts, in conjunction with the church (as a legitimizing force), worked together to keep slavery a socially accepted form of domination. The first chapter discusses these forms of domination, including the ideological, legal, and political barriers that shaped Peruvian slavery. The chapter highlights the social stigma engendered by the caste system and colonial laws. The remainder of the book shows how Africans in Peru challenged domination. Chapter 2 concentrates on rural slavery and the important role it played in coastal agriculture, while chapter 3 focuses on slavery in urban Peru. In these chapters, Aguirre stresses the variations of slave labor, including as field workers, water sellers (aguateros), or domestics. The milieus in which slaves worked and the conditions of their enslavement were complex and diverse: in the fields, slaves labored alongside free blacks, peons, and wage laborers; in the city, slaves oftentimes worked as artisans, paying their owners a daily fee, while contributing immeasurably to the development of urban culture. This diversity created two important, if contradictory, situations: first, slaves were confronted with a reality that should have provoked questioning about their condition; second, as one among a multitude of forms of labor, slavery was in some way naturalized and made acceptable for many people, including slaves themselves (p. 70). This is not to say that slaves did not desire, or obtain, their freedom.Chapter 4 studies the influence of African slavery on religion and culture, including the processes of syncretism, especially on the coastal haciendas of the Jesuits, the largest slaveholders during the colonial era. Aguirre focuses on two of Peru’s most important religious devotions, the Señor de los Milagros and San Martín de Porres, and their roots in African society in Peru. He also looks at the development of Afro-Peruvian music and one of its most important contributions, the cajón. Chapter 5 looks at the long road to abolition, including forms of rebellion and resistance such as escape (cimarronaje) and banditry, and forms of repression, like panaderías and palenques. The scarcity of slave rebellions, Aguirre argues, does not indicate a lack of combativeness among slaves; rather, it proves there were other nonviolent ways to challenge the oppression of slavery. The final chapter looks at the political, social, and economic processes leading up to abolition. Abolition did not create an economic disaster for coastal agriculture; rather, it led to the consolidation of a new economic force that quickly began to dominate the nation’s economy and politics. African slaves and their descendants now had a rhetorical freedom and equality, but they remained marginalized within Peruvian society.A snapshot of the institution’s three-hundred-year history, Aguirre crafts his narrative from a wide variety of secondary sources, from the early phase of African slavery in Peru to studies of abolition and manumission. However, it is hard to see how the institution of slavery developed and changed over time: slavery seems to be the same in 1780 as it was in 1580. This minor critique in no way should detract from the important contribution that this book makes to the study of colonial Peru. An accessibly written and beautifully illustrated volume, it would make an excellent addition to courses on the history of slavery, Africans in the diaspora, the history of race, Peruvian history, or the history of colonial Latin America. The book’s 14 appendixes of primary sources (laws, decrees, and essays) will be valuable teaching aids to engage students into the realities and legalities of slavery and colonial Latin America. Hopefully, a translation to English is forthcoming.

:Inquisitorial Inquiries: Brief Lives of Secret Jews and Other Heretics

On the first day of Francisco de San Antonio's trial before the Spanish Inquisition in Toledo in 1625, his interrogators asked him about his parentage. His real name, he stated, was Abram Ruben, and he had been born in Fez of Jewish parents. How then, Inquisitors wanted to know, had he become a Christian convert? Why had a Hebrew alphabet been found in his possession? And what was his business at the Court in Madrid? He was asked, according to his dossier, the story of his life. His response, more than ten folios long, is one of the many involuntary autobiographies created by the logic of the Inquisition that today provides rich insights into both the personal lives of the persecuted and the social, cultural, and political realities of the age. In Inquisitorial Inquiries, Richard Kagan and Abigail Dyer have collected, translated, and annotated six of these autobiographies from a diverse group of prisoners, five tried in Europe and one in Mexico. Each of the autobiographies has been selected to represent a particular political or social issue, while at the same time raising more intimate questions about the religious, sexual, political, or national identity of the prisoners. Among them are a politically incendiary prophet; a self-proclaimed hermaphrodite charged with having violated the sacrament of marriage for having married a woman; a female convert to Catholicism who betrayed her Jewish origins by serving as a rabbi and preaching heretical doctrine in the New World; and a morisco, an Islamic convert to Catholicism who claimed to have been circumcised against his will. In their introduction, Kagan and Dyer stress the collaborative nature of these texts, stressing the coercion involved and the purpose of the interrogations that solicited them. Making these invaluable primary sources available for the first time in English, Inquisitorial Inquiries will be of interest to students and scholars in the fields of early modern Europe, colonial Latin America, gender studies, and religious history.

Beyond black and red: African-Native relations in colonial Latin America

Introduction -- Black Slaves, Red Paint Meanings of Military Service in the Spanish American Colonies Africans and Native Americans on the Spanish Florida Frontier Common Cause and Confrontation Between Blacks and Natives in Colonial Brazil Conflict and Collaboration Between Afro-Mexicans and Nahuas in Central Mexico Race Relations and Popular Political Culture in Nueva Granada Africans and Natives in the Moines of Spanish America Black-Maya Relations in Colonial Guatemala and Yucatan Ethnic Transgression and Hybridity in North-eastern South American and the Caribbean Black-Native Relations and the Historical Record in Colonial Mexico Index.

Introduction: Constructing Difference in Colonial Latin America

Introduction: Constructing Difference in Colonial Latin America

Samuel Y. Edgerton. Review of "Art of Colonial Latin America" by Gauvin Alexander Bailey.

Samuel Y. Edgerton. Review of "Art of Colonial Latin America" by Gauvin Alexander Bailey.

Plagues, priests, and demons: sacred narratives and the rise of Christianity in the Old World and the New

1. Introduction 2. Epidemic disease and the rise of Christianity in Europe, 150-800 CE 3. The rise of Christianity in the New World: the Jesuit missions of colonial Mexico, 1591-1660 4. The relevance of Early Christian literature to missionaries in colonial Latin America 5. Conclusion.

Slavery and Salvation in Colonial Cartagena de Indias

Margaret M. Olsen has written an excellent analysis of Alonso de Sandoval’s early-seventeenth-century Instauranda Aethiopum Salute, a study of black slaves in colonial America. Sandoval was the mentor of the “Slave of the Slaves,” Pedro Claver, and is traditionally believed to have been responsible for the Claver’s lifelong dedication to improving the lot of black slaves in Cartagena de las Indias, Colombia. Instead of presenting the entire Instauranda text, Olsen quotes, translates, and comments on sections of Sandoval’s work. Of course, the scholar would much prefer to have the entire text, but the economics of modern publishing must have gotten in the way. Nevertheless, Olsen has chosen well, translated accurately, and commented wisely throughout.Sandoval’s Instauranda encompasses more than the history of blacks in Cartagena. The origin of the black race, explanations of physiognomy, and their Christian evan-gelization fell within the scope of his quill. He also attempted to show that the evan-gelization of blacks typically fell to the Jesuits, since their brethren in India, Southeast Asia, and Africa had been so involved. The point is important, because it responds to Sandoval’s target audience. For whom was Sandoval writing: Jesuits? Other missionaries in America? The pious layman? Olsen thinks that his Jesuit brethren in the Americas were the target audience. Not only did Sandoval argue spiritual equality; he (in Olsen’s view) also indirectly argued both for the abolition of the slave trade and against the institution of slavery itself. If indeed the Jesuits were Sandoval’s target audience, he was “blowing in the wind.” Cartagena de las Indias was only one of the major ports of debarkation for black slaves. Callao in Peru, Portobello in Mexico, and Rio de Janeiro in Brazil were other foci, and no Jesuit in those cities ever became the “Slave of the Slaves,” as Claver had been in Cartagena. Why not? Practice and tradition. In 1630–40, a major financial crisis caused the general of the Jesuits in Rome, Mucio Vitalleschi, to decide that each college (in Peru) was to have a few large, well-administered estates, rather than several poorly productive haciendas. As a result, building construction decreased, and slaveholding increased.I question whether any Jesuit ever seriously challenged the institution of slavery. In all of my years of rummaging through Jesuit and national archives in Latin America and Europe, I have come across only two Jesuits who directly opposed the institution of slavery. These two, residing in Brazil, were promptly shipped back home to Portu-gal. Not only did the Bible support slavery (“Slaves, obey your masters,” said St. Paul), but Western tradition favored it. Christian evangelization taught that it was better if the slave died as a baptized Christian in the New World going to heaven rather than remaining in Africa as a pagan, eternally damned. In addition, the economic life of the Jesuits in the Americas required slavery in order to maintain the apostolate that the Jesuits had begun—“God’s Work.” The Society of Jesus became the largest institutional slaveholder in America; by the time of their expulsion from Spanish America in 1767, the Jesuits owned over 5,200 black slaves. Tuition-free colleges, which had become the most significant Jesuit apostolate in the America, depended financially on large farms and the slaves who worked on them. As the order’s founder St. Ignatius Loyola stated, every spiritual work required a firm economic basis. Sandoval influenced few Jesuits. From early novitiate days, Jesuits were taught that economics were in other hands and that they should only be concerned with the intellectual and the spiritual. So by and large, the Jesuits themselves in colleges and residences remained physically and intellectually separate from the slaveholding haciendas that supported them.However, Olsen is mainly concerned with the text of Alonso de Sandoval’s study: what he says, what he quotes, and what he thinks about blacks in Cartagena. Both Sando-val and Olsen are of one mind in fusing the temporal with the spiritual. At the time San-doval was writing, to say that blacks were entitled to full participation in the life of the church, in all its aspects, meant ridicule and even ostracism. Sandoval thus had recourse to metaphor and rhetorical devices. Olsen, on her part, uses modern textual analysis to “read between the lines” in order to extract as much information as she could about what slaves thought about their new white masters.This is a small but valuable book that should be on the shelf of anyone interested in slavery or the Jesuits in colonial Latin America.

Liberalism and Married Women’s Property Rights in Nineteenth-Century Latin America

Liberalism and Married Women’s Property Rights in Nineteenth-Century Latin America

Art of colonial Latin America

Introduction 1. First Encounters: The Pre-Hispanic World and the Colonial Scene 2. Eyeing the Other: The Indigenous Response 3. The image of empire: The arts of the viceroys 4. Making Art: Guilds and Academies 5. Idols and Altars: The Arts of the Missions and Country Churches 6. A Divine Splendour: The Arts of the Metropolitan Churches 7. Town and Country: The Arts of the Colonial Aristocracy 8. The Renaissance Abroad: The Iberian Empires in Asia and Africa Epilogue Glossary Brief Biographies Key Dates Map Further Reading Index Acknowledgements