Colonial Experience Research Articles

Living standards and forced labour: A comparative study of colonial Africa, 1918–74

AbstractDespite significant advances in the quantitative study of African history, the Portuguese colonial empire remains an underexplored topic. This paper provides the first quantitative assessment of worker living standards in Angola and Mozambique, contextualized within a broader comparison of colonial African empires. Using the barebones subsistence basket method to construct welfare ratios, as well as focusing specifically on the African mining sector, this research offers a comprehensive cross‐temporal and cross‐geographical analysis. Key findings reveal two major patterns: until 1960, welfare ratios in the Portuguese empire were notably lower than in other territories, with this disparity widening after the Second World War. However, starting in the 1960s, welfare ratios in Angola and Mozambique began to rapidly and consistently increase, closing the gap that had widened in the post‐war period and achieving improvements in living standards within a few years that typically took decades to achieve elsewhere. The findings are then interpreted through an in‐depth case study approach, demonstrating how the persistence of forced labour systems under the Portuguese Empire contributed to the consistently low living standards of workers. The unexpected abolition of these coercive systems in 1961 marked the beginning of rapid improvements in living standards, underscoring the critical role of institutional changes within history. This research enhances our understanding of the functioning of coercive labour markets as well as of Africa's diverse colonial experiences.

Beyond the Country of Origin and the Receiving Society: Differentiated Place Attachments and Homes Among Dominican Immigrants in the Netherlands

ABSTRACTThis study moves beyond traditional questions regarding immigrants' integration into various domains of their receiving societies to explore the meanings of places and the associated feelings of home. By examining how specific geographical locations relate to these feelings, the study illuminates post‐migration experiences and realities that are often overlooked in studies of immigrants. Specifically, it explores the significance of both the country of origin and the receiving society in shaping immigrants' feeling of home. Two key findings emerge from this ethnographic research. First, the study underscores the diversity within immigrant communities regarding the perceived location of home, with a particular emphasis on the influence of stepwise migration trajectories on these perceptions. Second, the findings demonstrate that the feeling of home is rooted in a variety of factors. By examining this feeling, this study offers a valuable lens via which to understand immigrants' attachments to both their countries of origin and receiving societies, enriching our understanding of their settlement experiences.

Controlling Migration: How Martha of the North and Exile Reclaim Inuit Sovereignty

In the twenty-first century, there is increased awareness in Canada about the horrors of residential schools and the destructive actions of the government towards First Nations peoples. But this education has not extended to the histories of Arctic Indigenous peoples, whose experience of settler colonialism is different because of their geographical location. Until outside intervention, Inuit had been semi-nomadic, populating the North with small, mobile communities, as this way of life was best suited for hunting and traditional practices. Beginning in the 1950s, the Canadian government forced Inuit into centralized communities, pressuring them to leave their lands and thereby destroying a traditional way of life that had been in place for thousands of years. This article will explore the negative consequences of ‘domicide’, or the killing of one’s home, and the cultural devastation that followed. Years later, the relocation and its impacts were depicted in Inuit-made documentaries, such as Marquise Lepage’s Martha of the North in 2008, and Exile by Zacharias Kunuk in 2009. In this chapter, I will detail how Inuit-made film is helping Northerners reclaim Arctic sovereignty, documenting for future generations how their ancestors lived.

Chinese Companies in The Nigerian Construction Industry Since 1999: Issues and Contentions

There is no gainsaying the fact that China (and her multinational corporations) has penetrated a large portion of the global economy in the last three decades. There is hardly any country in and a sector of the African economy (Nigeria in particular) that does not have a significant presence of Chinese transnational corporations. The economic inter-relationships between Nigeria and China has witnessed a tremendous increase since the birth of the fourth republic in Nigeria. From the backdrop of the country’s infrastructural deficiency and colonial experience, the Nigerian construction industry has been exposed to participation from different foreign multinational corporations from Germany, Egypt, Italy, and China among others. In the last two decades, however, Chinese companies have dominated the Nigerian construction industry. Through the lens of historical scholarship, this study examines the factors that seem to have provided the Chinese an edge over other multinational construction companies in Nigeria. Using the theories of international economic relations such as the liberal theory, the comparative advantage theory, the factors proportion theory, and the strategic trade policy theory the study expatiates on some of the issues and contentions relating to the presence of Chinese companies in the Nigerian construction industry. It adopts a qualitative research methodology using historical approach to data collation and interpretations. Information is derived majorly from secondary sources via extant literature, media reportage, and internet materials from the websites of companies. Few oral interviews are also conducted to verify some of the information from the media and the internet.

Alienation in Maryse Condé’s Le Cœur à Rire et à Pleurer

Postcolonialism is a theoretical framework that problematizes the legacy of colonialism through the lenses of sociology, psychology, and literature. Postcolonial literature, exploring the enduring impact of colonialism on literary works addresses themes such as identity, exile, and alienation. Frantz Fanon was one of the most prominent thinkers of the 20th century with his anti-colonial works, which dealt with the problems created by colonialism on both an individual and a cultural level. Fanon, exploring the alienation of colonized peoples from their own origins, asserts that true freedom can be attained when individuals liberate themselves from this imposed sense of otherness. Maryse Condé, one of the leading figures of French postcolonial literature, delves into the search for identity among those who have endured the experiences of slavery, colonialism, and exile. The aim of this study is to analyze the concept of alienation in Maryse Condé's autobiographical storybook, Le Cœur à Rire et à Pleurer, within the framework of Frantz Fanon's postcolonial theory.

Racialized and Colonial Experiences of Graduate Teaching Assistants: Oppression, Meaning and Transformation

Despite significant research on racialized inequity in higher education, little research examines the experiences of TAs who are Black, Indigenous or people of colour (BIPOC) in Canada. Based on 37 semi-structured interviews with BIPOC domestic graduate student TAs, this article explores the racialized and colonial oppression of BIPOC TAs: They confront racism from students (disrespect, challenges to their authority and expertise; microaggressions and discrimination; exposure to racist and colonial discourse in students’ work). They also experience challenges with TA supervisors (not being heard; discriminatory discipline; political alienation). Finally, BIPOC TAs face racism within administration (“unthinking” racism; discrimination). Yet, BIPOC TAs also experience TAing as a source of meaning (love of teaching; pride in their pedagogy; desire to help students) and transformation (fostering critical thinking; reflecting students’ identities; being a role model). Although BIPOC TAs are marginalized by institutional whiteness-coloniality, they engage in resistance from the position of marginality. Given the vital role TAs play in today’s universities, attention is needed to address the inequities faced by BIPOC TAs and to support their role in transforming the university.

Simone de Beauvoir and the Colonial Experience: Freedom, Violence, and Identity, by Nathalie Nya

Simone de Beauvoir and the Colonial Experience: Freedom, Violence, and Identity, by Nathalie Nya

Reflections on Zimbabwe-Zambia Relations in the 21st Century

The article explores the changing relationship between Zimbabwe and Zambia in the 21st century, focusing on the intrinsic synergy of political and socio-economic factors. Historically, the diplomatic relationship was hinged in shared colonial experiences and liberation struggles, the bilateral ties between these neighboring countries have been significantly influenced by contemporary governance challenges, economic fluctuations, and regional integration efforts. Dual Theoretical Framework of Realism and Constructivism was adopted as a tool for analysing the interplay between power, interests, norms, and ideas in shaping bilateral relations between the two nations. By analysing key events from the early 2000s, a document review methodology was used to illustrate how Zimbabwe and Zambia navigated their shared interests and challenges in a rapidly changing global landscape. The findings revealed that while historical legacies and domestic issues continue to impact relations, there exists a significant potential for enhanced cooperation through strategic partnerships and regional initiatives. The role of organizations such as the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the African Union (AU) is critical in shaping these dynamics. Ultimately, this article contributes to a deeper understanding of Zimbabwe-Zambia relations, offering insights that are essential for policymakers and stakeholders aiming to foster stability and collaboration in Southern Africa Region.

Polynesia against Paris: Indigenous Anti-Nuclear Literature and the French Colonial Origins of Oceanian Reintegration

Abstract: This essay examines Francophone and Anglophone Indigenous Oceanian literature and art to argue that through the predominantly Polynesian response to French nuclear testing in Te Ao Mā’ohi (French Polynesia), French colonialism has inadvertently generated one key cultural movement toward post-colonial Oceanian reintegration—one that extends well beyond the Francophone Pacific. The essay first examines the prose fiction of Chantal Spitz, Rai a Mai [aka Michou Chaze], and Déwé Gorodé to understand Te Ao Mā’ohi’s (French Polynesia's) and Kanaky’s (New Caledonia's) shared experiences of French colonialism. It then contrasts the same authors’ treatment of French nuclear weapons testing, which was the central crisis in Mā’ohi literature but which was marginal to early Kanak prose fiction. The essay then brings this Francophone literature in direct conversation with the hitherto unexamined specifically anti-French dimension of better-known Anglophone Oceanian works from authors Witi Ihimaera (Maori) and Albert Wendt (Samoan) and visual artists Ralph Hotere (Maori) and Hiko‘ula Hanapi (Hawaiian). The essay then demonstrates how this mutual Francophone-Anglophone Polynesian response to French colonialism created a Polynesia-centric anti-French-colonial process of Oceanian reintegration, and how that engine of Pacific reintegration later encompassed Kanaky and generated new cultural and activist connections between the Francophone and Anglophone Pacific.

Growth of Agricultural Labour in Bankura District: Colonial Experiences

Growth of Agricultural Labour in Bankura District: Colonial Experiences

Splenic Modulation of Plasmodium vivax Relapses and Hypnozoite Activation during the Second World War?

Despite their colonial experience with tropical medicine, Allied (United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and India) Armies in the Indo-Pacific region were surprised by the large number of Plasmodium vivax infections in their soldiers during the Second World War. Even after the institution of effective chemoprophylaxis with quinacrine, multiple cycles of clinical relapses often occurred when months of medication was discontinued. Nearly monthly symptomatic relapses (>10) were not unusual and resulted in important manpower losses after each campaign. Retrospective consideration suggests that small splenic size was associated with the risk of recurrent clinical episodes of vivax malaria. Potential non-mutually exclusive explanations for frequent relapses of vivax malaria in soldiers are reviewed. These include decreased retention of parasitized red blood cells by small spleens through greater filtration stringency preventing relapses from becoming clinically patent; small spleen size being a marker of lower innate and/or acquired immunity, modulating the risk of clinically patent recurrences; or small spleen size increasing the number of relapses through decreased removal of triggers of hypnozoite activation. Apparent splenic modulation of vivax malaria relapses suggests a complex interaction between the parasite and host that might be amenable to manipulation to facilitate malaria elimination.

Roots and Routes: Funeral Practices and Land-based Identities in the Yunnan-Tibetan Borderlands

This article analyses Pumi (Premi) funeral practices and naming customs of social groupings to interpret their idiom of ru, an indigenous notion of ‘bone’ common among Tibeto-Burman groups. I argue that the Pumi ru name marks a land-based identity constituted by the deposition of bones collected from cremation remains and the soul-guiding ritual along the ancestral migration route at funerals. On the one hand, the notion of ru refers to a conception of kinship relations that emphasises a continual connection to the same places fulfilled from birth to death, in addition to the shared bodily substance of bone. On the other hand, this connection to the land articulates both experiences of settlement and movement. Although the local translation of ru is ‘root’ in Mandarin, this form of identity is not ‘rooted’ at the current settlement but embedded in a sense of landscape constituted by past migrations and repetitive ritual journeys of souls.

Colonialism and Local Elites: Lyautey's Colonial Experience in Morocco as a Case Study

This article presents a thorough analysis of the dynamics that developed between the Moroccan makhzen elites and the French Resident General Hubert Lyautey during the period of the French protectorate in Morocco (1912–1956). The article examines how Lyautey, by employing carefully crafted strategies, effectively utilized the Moroccan elite as a pivotal tool for strengthening colonial dominance, all the while preserving the traditional and social values inherent in Morocco. The makhzen elites represent a pivotal component of the traditional Moroccan framework, having wielded considerable administrative and religious authority before the advent of the protectorate, thus justifying their prominent role in this analysis. The article suggests that these elites stood at a crucial juncture, where they had to decide between opposing French dominance and collaborating with the colonial administration to preserve their status and privileges. Lyautey upheld the conventional social and political structure, leveraging this context to advance the execution of colonial policies. As a result, a considerable portion of them chose to engage in collaboration. The article highlighted the "dual cooperation policy" that Lyautey put into practice. He upheld various conventional administrative frameworks, such as the Sharia judiciary and the Emirate of the Faithful, thus presenting himself as a guardian of authentic Moroccan values. This approach ensured the relative stability of the country during that period by striking a delicate equilibrium between the enforcement of French authority and the maintenance of the traditional Moroccan regime's outward appearance. The article says that the makhzen elites weren't just tools of colonial power; instead, they showed that they could negotiate to protect their own interests in a colonial setting. In this light, it's clear that Lyautey’s relationship with these elites was more than just dependence; it was a complex one characterised by mutual interests that overlapped. This research reveals a deep understanding of the complexities of power within the context of colonialism, illustrating how France leveraged local traditional forces to bolster its colonial endeavours while refraining from dismantling or supplanting them. This methodology played a significant role in shaping the distinctive identity of the French colonisation in Morocco.

Challenging patriarchal motherhood: A critical analysis of fictional mothers in Caryl Phillips’ The Final Passage and The Lost Child

This study explores the literary mother figures in Caryl Phillips’ novels The Final Passage (1985) and The Lost Child (2015) through the critical lens of matricentric feminism, focusing on patriarchal notions of motherhood including normalisation, idealisation, depoliticalisation and naturalisation. Extensive research has been conducted on these novels, but their representations of mother characters have remained relatively under-explored. With the aim of addressing that gap in the literature, we argue that Caryl Phillips problematises idealised, universal and traditional conceptions of motherhood by offering multiple and, particularly, otherised mother figures in these novels. Deconstructing such conceptions of motherhood, he exposes the socio-political and economic inequalities arising from racial discrimination, class inequalities, patriarchal oppression and colonial experiences that affect his characters’ mothering adversely. Through an intersectional reading of the mother characters in these two novels, this study aims to highlight the characters’ complexities and significance, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of the novels and enriching the discourse surrounding the representation of motherhood in literature and culture. A comparative study of these novels further reveals that they encompass various settings for multiple depictions of motherhood and different stages of imperialism, presenting haunting continuities and discontinuities in different centuries.

Identifying barriers to maternal care in mothers from black, minority ethnic and refugee communities in Islington

Maternal death rate in the UK has risen sharply and reached levels above those observed in the previous 20 years. Between 2020 and 2022 there were 13.41 deaths for every 100,000 maternity cases compared to 8.79 deaths per 100,000 cases in 2017–19(1). In conjunction with this, maternal mortality rates show significant disparities: women from black ethnic backgrounds have a three times higher risk of dying as mothers than white women(2). The maternal death rate for women in the most deprived areas is twice that of those residing in the least deprived areas(3) emphasising the need for ongoing efforts to close these gaps.Located in Islington, Manor Gardens is a unique charity committed to improving maternal health by offering essential support services to expectant women. Their programmes include providing pre and postnatal care, mental health assistance, nutrition guidance, and access to health care professionals.The aim of this study was to combine quantitative analysis of the charity’s maternity information system with qualitative interviews to evaluate the maternity services provided by the charity. Specifically, the study sought to assess service utilisation, explore user experiences and perceptions of their maternity care experiences.Ethical approval was obtained from the London Metropolitan University to analyse the data from the charity’s maternity information system. We included women who used their services from 2019 to 2023. In addition to this, eight opportunistic face -to- face interviews were undertaken and thematically analysed to understand the impact of cultural and socioeconomic factors on their maternity care experience.We identified 256 women had accessed the charity’s services of whom 70 were included in our report due to incomplete data. Forty-nine percent (n = 34) of women were identified as having minority ethnicities, 35% as other and 16% as white. Forty-six percent (n = 32) did not speak English or had basic English. Social isolation, domestic abuse, seeking asylum, unsuitable housing and not having a bank account were among the barriers which prevented access to healthcare. Only 19% confirmed they had registered with a GP.The thematic analysis identified the following themes: Migration and Settlement Experience,Cultural Barriers, Healthcare Experience, Maternity Care and Postpartum Challenges and Support Systems. The interviews revealed the experiences of mothers, marked by social isolation, language and cultural barriers impacting understanding of healthcare procedures, struggles following childbirth magnified by impoverished living standards. These highlight the importance of effective support systems and culturally sensitive health care.Our findings suggest that by supporting maternal health, Manor Gardens Charity has the potential to identify barriers which can adversely impact the lives of many women and their families within a deprived community.

The Uncanny Future of the Anthropocene

This essay will go over the basic notions of the uncanny while addressing the distance and the alienation of subject from the very concept of time in the imagination of the future in the age of Anthropocene. In fact, the two trajectories of time, namely past and future, overlap as the uncanny reflection of each other. It is by paying attention to the phenomenon and the consequence of the melting of glacier of the Alps that this essay attempts to remap the basic concepts of time, which consists of two kinds of engagements to historicization, namely remembering and anticipating. This essay argues that our failure to imagine the future is connected to the repressed memory of the colonial experience. In other words, the unveiling of the mountain as a result of global warming shows that our historical time is moving towards its own end, demanding us to address the issues that are repressed in our culture that allows all kinds of extractions. The time of Anthropocene is now bridging the gap between the location of death and the location of life with the force that can be best addressed as the uncanny return of the repressed voice.

From European Roots to Settler Soil: Adapting Foucault’s Biopolitics to Canadian Settler Colonialism

This article examines the applicability of Michel Foucault’s biopolitical theory within the Canadian settler colonial context. Foucault’s concept of biopolitics, which describes the shift from sovereign power to the regulation of life and populations, is grounded in European historical contexts. In contrast, the Canadian settler colonial experience diverges significantly, necessitating a re-examination of biopolitics. The article argues that in Canada, the relationship between sovereignty, population, and territory does not follow the European model described by Foucault. Instead, Crown sovereignty established its control through legal mechanisms that defined ‘Indian’ status, displacing Indigenous territorialities and political structures. By analysing the evolution of ‘Indian’ status within the Indian Act (1985), the article highlights the centrality of law in constructing settler colonial biopolitics. This legal framework was used to manage and assimilate Indigenous populations, reflecting a unique biopolitical strategy aimed at creating a relationship to territory and population. The study contributes to a more specific understanding of biopolitics in settler colonial contexts, emphasizing the distinct role of law in these processes.

‘Why, it’s like Belgium!’: the Women’s International League in the Irish War of Independence 1919–1921

ABSTRACT This article demonstrates how the Women’s International League (WIL) dealt with the changing ideas of nationhood, internationalism, imperialism, and freedom when supporting the cause of Irish independence. Their actions included seeking to protect Britain’s good name while simultaneously criticising that very same nation for its war in Ireland. The ‘small nations’ rhetoric that had emerged during the First World War was used by British feminists to divorce the atrocities of the British Crown force, the Black and Tans, from the wider colonial experience of oppression. Comparing the occupation of Ireland in 1919–1921 to that of Belgium during the First World War enabled British internationalist-feminists to support the sovereignty of Ireland’s nationhood, without necessarily having to engage with the colonial dimension or history of the conflict. This entirely changed the parameters within which British feminists could show solidarity with the Irish republicans while still maintaining positive views of British imperialism and the empire.

Strategic easing of height restrictions: Unveiling the intersection of free market principles and colonial mentality in Hong Kong’s urban densification

ABSTRACT High-density housing development is considered a pragmatic response to the conflicts between land scarcity and population growth. Under the rhetoric of (neo)liberalism, the flourishing private housing market narrative was anchored throughout the last century, along with significant contributions from government regulations. The 1955 Buildings Ordinance, which eased height limits, laid the groundwork for Hong Kong’s high-density foundations. The existing historiographical literature examines this from a technical perspective. However, it overlooks the decision-making processes behind these regulations and their alignment with or deviation from free market principles. This study examines colonial archives to scrutinize the colonial government’s approach to building regulations, revealing that easing height restrictions was not merely a technical adjustment but a calculated response to broader economic and demographic challenges. It was a strategy to stimulate private housing development and manage population growth without significantly increasing government spending. This raises concerns regarding prevailing assumptions that the colonial government supported a free-market approach to housing rather than exploring the debates and deliberations that shaped these policies. By comparing colonial experiences in Hong Kong and London, historical analysis challenges the conventional understanding of Hong Kong’s urban development, thereby highlighting the contentious relationship between liberal economic policies and the colonial administrative framework.

Digital Media to Support Healing from Trauma: A Conceptual Framework Based on Mindfulness

Digital media which involve narrative storytelling are increasingly used in nursing and health research, including clinical applications such as cinematherapy. A pilot study was conducted on how digital media self-accessed by marginalized individuals may be beneficial toward mindfulness and healing from trauma. Qualitative interviews were conducted with individuals (n = 8) who self-reported marginalizations via: race; gender; rural geography; socioeconomic status; indigenous or colonial experience; survivor of abuse; experiences of homelessness; or disability. Results indicated that trauma-narratives often organically emerge through discussions on digital media, with notable intersections with mindfulness-based practices and interventions. First, digital media can create a mindfulness of trauma as valid to discuss and disseminate. Mindfulness of authentic resolution also emerged as critical, as trauma may be employed in media narratives for attention or sympathy with no intent to support healing. Participant responses illustrate value in being mindful of individuals with severe trauma, who may be less likely to benefit from digital media. Digital media can foster sense-of-belonging and community-building amidst isolation; additionally, parasocial relationships may help foster supportive identities and ideologies on vulnerability. Findings are outlined in a preliminary conceptual framework, toward supporting future digital media with intent to create mindfulness or heal trauma.