Agrostis Capillaris Research Articles

Interspecific comparisons of C3 turfgrass for tennis use: II. Investigation of ball friction, ball bounce, and associated factors in replicated grass courts

AbstractTennis is played on many different surfaces including natural grass, which plays fast because of low ball bounce (i.e., coefficient of restitution [COR]) and low ball‐to‐surface friction (coefficient of friction [COF]) that increase the pace (ball speed) of tennis. Effects of various C3 turfgrasses on COF and COR have not been investigated. Our objectives were to evaluate eight cultivars of various species randomized within three official size tennis courts: (a) ‘Keeneland’ Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L., KB), (b) ‘Rubix’ KB, (c) ‘Villa’ velvet bentgrass (Agrostis canina L., VBG), (d) ‘Puritan’ colonial bentgrass (Agrostis capillaris L., CL), (e) ‘007’ creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L., CB), (f) fine fescue (Festuca sp., FF) mixture, (g) ‘Karma’ perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L, PR), and (h) ‘Wicked’ PR. Friction was measured using a weighted sled and ball bounce (BB) to derive COR was measured using a vertical drop height of 254 cm. Bounce (i.e., COR) to satisfy the International Tennis Federation (ITF) minimum of 50% BB (COR = 0.70) was not observed on any of the species evaluated. Species such as FF and PR were able to achieve BB to satisfy the ITF 80% BB minimum to that observed on smooth concrete. Linear regression indicated that 170g of surface hardness for FF and PR to as much as 200g on KB and higher on BG may be needed to achieve a COR = 0.70. Hemi‐ and lignocellulose cell wall fractions were correlated with COR and COF but exhibited significant and opposite relationships. Achieving higher COF may be a more practical means to slow court pace of notoriously fast grass courts. Future research will be needed to investigate the effects of cultural practices on COF.

Adaptation and Some Quality Parameters of Cool Season Turfgrass Species in Samsun Conditions

The aim of this study is to determine adaptation and quality parameters of some cool season turfgrass cultivars and species, In the scope of this study, leaf form, variation of leaf colour according to the seasons, tiller number, thinning ratio, weed ratio and general appearance of the species were determined. The experiment was established according to confounding design with four replications in Samsun Conditions at November, 2010. According to 1000 seed weight and characteristics of the plants seeding ratios were determined as pure and viable seed as follows; Lolium perenne 40 g m-2, Festuca rubra var. rubra and Festuca rubra var. commutata 30 g m-2, Festuca arundinacea 40 g m-2, Poa pratensis 20 g m-2, Festuca rubra trichophylla 30 g m-2, Agrostis stolonifera and Agrostis tenuis 5 g m-2, Festuca ovina 25 g m-2. According to the results obtained from this study it was determined that species/cultivars have some superiority to each other because of their different morphological and physiological characteristics. When we consider weed competition, Lolium perenne and Festuca arundinaceae cultivars have to be added to the mixture in order to decrease weed competition. There was colour variation distinctively depending on the seasons for all species. But, compare to the others, cultivars of Agrostis sp. and Poa pratensis cultivars have the potential to keep leaf colour in different seasons. Leaf form and appearance of Festuca rubra, Poa trivialis and Festuca ovina are better than the others. In order to keep good conditions of turfgrass areas, especially after cutting in summer period, Poa pratensis and Poa trivialis should added in mixtures to get benefit their higher regenerating power.

Competitive dominance mediates the effects of topography on plant richness in a mountain grassland

Small-scale landforms influence plant species richness, but their mechanisms and effects in semi-natural dry grasslands have been poorly investigated. In this study we compared vascular plant richness, species composition, plant traits, soil properties and biomass nutrient content of convex (hillocks) and concave (hollows) karst landforms in a mountain pasture of the Central Apennines (Italy), at a small spatial scale (1 m2 plots). We found hillocks had significantly higher species richness than hollows. On hillocks, smaller Specific Leaf Area and Lateral Width, together with greater allocation of resources to Below-Ground Organs, indicated lower water availability, whereas hollows had deeper (thus moister), more acidic and more fertile soils, with aboveground plant biomass displaying higher nutrient levels. Partial correlation and regression tree models suggested that fine-scale richness patterns were not directly determined by abiotic properties, but were rather the result of competition levels associated with the cover of Agrostis capillaris (=A. tenuis) – a calcifuge and drought-sensitive grass able to achieve dominance only in hollows. The higher functional convergence exhibited by hollows suggests that A. capillaris is a strong competitor both above- and below-ground, mediating the effects of topography by imposing a biotic filter. On hillocks, competition is released by lower levels of available soil water in summer and higher soil pH, resulting in higher species richness and a more functionally divergent assemblage.

Evaluation of different revegetation measures on mudflow deposits in the Nature Park Sölktäler (Styria, Austria)

Summary In mountain regions, the likelihood of mudflows might increase due to climate change. Although mudflows are common worldwide and devastate agricultural land, virtually nothing is known about the revegetation of mudflow deposits for agricultural purposes. To provide recommendations for rapid revegetation of mountain pastures, 52 permanent plots (4 m × 4 m) on 20 revegetated mudflow deposits in the Nature Park Sölktäler were established. We evaluated different revegetation measures (seed addition alone or combined with application of straw, lime or cattle manure) two years after sowing using commercial clover-grass seed mixtures. Furthermore, 27 permanent plots on 15 unsown mudflow deposits were surveyed. Sowing seeds can considerably accelerate revegetation on siliceous mudflow deposits. Festuca rubra, Agrostis capillaris, Lolium perenne, Trifolium repens and Lotus corniculatus are particularly suitable for rapid grassland reestablishment, whereas Poa pratensis is not recommendable. A pure straw application should be avoided because it delays the revegetation success. Lime addition is not recommended because it can lead to an undesirable legume dominance if clover-grass seed mixtures are used for revegetation. The most effective measure for large-scale revegetation seems to be seed addition without additives. To facilitate revegetation on coarse-grained deposits, large rocks should be crushed using a stone mill.

Interspecific comparisons of C3 turfgrass for tennis use: I. Wear tolerance and carrying capacity under actual match play

AbstractPrevious studies in the evaluation of wear tolerance have been conducted using wear simulators. Research to investigate wear tolerance of C3 turfgrasses under actual playing conditions and their carrying capacity is limited. Three grass tennis courts (replicates) maintained as official size (single) courts were constructed. Eight species and cultivars were randomized within the three courts (blocks): (1) ‘Keeneland’ Kentucky bluegrass (KB, Poa pratensis L.), (2) ‘Rubix’ KB, (3) ‘Villa’ velvet bentgrass (VBG, Agrostis canina L.), (4) ‘Puritan’ colonial bentgrass (CL, Agrostis capillaris L.), (5) ‘007’ creeping bentgrass (CB, Agrostis stolonifera L.), (6) fine fescue (FF, Festuca spp.) mixture, (7) ‘Karma’ perennial ryegrass (PR, Lolium perenne L.), and (8) ‘Wicked’ PR. Injury at the baseline was measured by counting healthy grass on four dates in 2017 and 2019 using an intersect grid. Carrying capacity at the baseline was derived as hours of play to sustain 90, 80, 70, and 60% grass cover. After 6 wk of actual tennis play involving >120 participating players in 2017 and 2019, KB and PR were superior to other C3 turfgrass for wear tolerance and carrying capacity. These two species exhibited four times the carrying capacity of FF species and nearly 60% more carrying capacity than bentgrass (BG) species. Species of BG afforded higher shoot density and better traction than KB and PR, with VBG exhibiting the best traction, and FF and PR exhibiting the poorest traction. In 2017, greater cell wall content increased wear tolerance and carrying capacity. Velvet bentgrass was as good as KB and PR in overall wear tolerance and carrying capacity under actual match play.

Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron Has Minimum Toxicological Risk on the Germination and Early Growth of Two Grass Species with Potential for Phytostabilization.

Two Poaceae species, Agrostis capillaris and Festuca rubra, were selected for their potential as phytostabilizing plants in multicontaminated soils. These species are resistant to contamination and maintain high concentrations of contaminants at the root level. Nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) is an engineered nanomaterial with the ability to stabilize metal(loid)s in soils; its potential toxicological effects in the selected species were studied in a germination test using: (i) control variant without soil; (ii) soil contaminated with Pb and Zn; and (iii) contaminated soil amended with 1% nZVI, as well as in an hydroponic experiment with the addition of nZVI 0, 25, 50 and 100 mg L−1. nZVI had no negative effects on seed germination or seedling growth, but was associated with an increase in shoot growth and reduction of the elongation inhibition rate (root-dependent) of F. rubra seedlings. However, applications of nZVI in the hydroponic solution had no effects on F. rubra but A. capillaris developed longer roots and more biomass. Increasing nZVI concentrations in the growing solution increased Mg and Fe uptake and reduced the Fe translocation factor. Our results indicate that nZVI has few toxic effects on the studied species.

Arsenic Uptake by Two Tolerant Grass Species: Holcus lanatus and Agrostis capillaris Growing in Soils Contaminated by Historical Mining.

The study focused on two grass species Holcus lanatus and Agrostis capillaris abundant in the sites of former As mining and processing in the Sudetes. Arsenic uptake from soils was examined to assess a risk associated with its accumulation in grass shoots and to check its dependence on soil fertilization. The research involved a field study and greenhouse experiment. In the field study, soil and plant samples were collected from 33 sites with 72–98,400 mg/kg total soil As. Arsenic uptake by grasses differed widely. Both species indicated a strategy typical for eliminators, although As concentrations in more than 50% of the shoot samples exceeded 4 mg/kg, a maximum permissible value for fodder. In the greenhouse experiment, commercial cultivars of both species were grown in five soils containing 394–19,600 mg/kg, untreated and fertilized. All seedlings died in the soil with highest total As, and considerable phytotoxicity was observed in other soils, particularly in nonfertilized ones. Fertilization resulted in the improvement of plant growth and reduction of As uptake except for Agrostis capillaris fertilized with manure. Further research should focus on identifying tolerant genotypes growing in extremely enriched sites and analysis of factors that will efficiently reduce As phytoaccumulation.

Occurrence of Weeds in an Orchard due to Cultivation of Long-Term Perennial Living Mulches

The living mulch permanence along with the succession of their weed infestation in an apple orchard were evaluated at the Research Station, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences. The perennial cover crops: white clover and colonial bent grass, as well as the annual dwarf nasturtium, were sown as living mulches in apple tree rows, in the year of establishing the orchard. Blue fescue was sown one year later to replace the dwarf nasturtium. The percent of covers and temporal dominance dynamics of weeds were estimated during the first 13 years of the orchard maintenance. The occurrence of annual weeds, which had been abundant in all the living mulches in the year of their sowing, decreased in the following years of orchard maintenance. Conversely, the dominance of several perennial weed species increased as the orchard reached the full cropping period. White clover exhibited the lowest permanence. Dynamic spreading of <em>Elymus repens </em>(L.) Gould and other species from the Poaceae family was the direct cause of this cover crop disappearance. The presence of perennial dicotyledonous weeds, primarily <em>Taraxacum officinale </em>Web. and <em>Convolvulus arvensis </em>L., also contributed to the diminished sod of all the living mulches. Blue fescue maintained satisfactory dominance relative to colonial bent grass for nearly the entire first decade of the research. Nevertheless, both grass living mulches were present on less than half of the tree row soil surface area, in the thirteenth year after planting of the apple trees.

Effects of biochar, ochre and manure amendments associated with a metallicolous ecotype of Agrostis capillaris on As and Pb stabilization of a former mine technosol.

Metal(loid) soil pollution is a major environmental and health issue, requiring these areas to be remediated, for example through phytoremediation processes. In order to allow proper plant establishment and growth, amendments must be applied to highly contaminated and poorly fertile soils. Amendments are diverse, but many studies have shown the beneficial effects of biochar, manure and ochre, although studies on their combined use are scarce. Moreover, no studies have evaluated the effect of these combined amendments on endemic plant growth. Endemic plants growing on contaminated soils showed higher tolerance toward pollutants compared to plants coming from unpolluted areas. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate both the effect of amendments (single or combined) on the physicochemical properties of a former mining technosol, and the growth and metal(loid) accumulation ability of endemic Agrostis capillaris plants. This study revealed an improvement in the soil physicochemical properties following the application of amendments, with combined amendments showing better results than the application of just one. On top of this, Agrostis plants performed better on the amended technosols, especially the ones receiving manure, due to its high nutrient content. Finally, based on soil properties, plant growth and the metal(loid) accumulation profile, the use of biochar combined with manure seems to be the most appropriate treatment. Indeed, this treatment showed an improvement in both soil fertility and plant growth. Moreover, Agrostis plants grown in these conditions were among those showing higher root metal(loid) concentration associated with a lower translocation toward aerial parts.

Cotula alpina (Asteraceae) naturalised in the British Isles

Cotula alpina (Hook f.) Hook f. is an Australian herb that has been naturalised in Britain since the 1970s and is now locally abundant in parts of northern England and northwest Scotland. Its method of arrival is unknown but it is likely to have originated from gardens and perhaps also from wool shoddy. It appears to be spreading rapidly due to high seed production and effective dispersal by sheep, humans and vehicles and is now locally abundant on moorland tracks and in adjacent acid grassland and heather moorland managed for grouse. Due to its evergreen and mat-forming habit it can outcompete community dominants such as Agrostis capillaris and Festuca ovina in areas where levels of grazing are high. It appears to be well suited to the British climate and is therefore likely to spread into similar habitats in other regions where it could pose a threat to localized species associated with short grassland on acidic soils. Its overall abundance and ability to regenerate rapidly from seed means it is unlikely to be easily controlled or eradicated, although exclusion of grazing may help to reduce its abundance in some areas.

Синтаксономия растительности карьеров на месте сведенных сосняков лишайниковых и зеленомошных (среднетаежная подзона европейского северо-востока России)

Синтаксономия растительности карьеров на месте сведенных сосняков лишайниковых и зеленомошных (среднетаежная подзона европейского северо-востока России)

Detection of interspecific hybrids between creeping bentgrass and colonial bentgrass using DNA marker analysis

AbstractBentgrasses (Agrostis spp.) are cool‐season turfgrasses that have utility on golf courses or other turf applications requiring low mowing heights. Interspecific hybridization of Agrostis species is a strategy that has been proposed to enhance biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in this genus. Non‐transgenic, efficient, and cost‐effective methods for interspecific hybrid detection are needed. In this study two bentgrass species creeping bentgrass (A. stolonifera L.), and colonial bentgrass (A. capillaris L.) were allowed to intercross under field conditions. Progeny plant DNA was extracted and stored using Flinders Technology Associates (FTA) PlantSaver cards followed by primer specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and high‐resolution melt analysis. Species identifying PCR primers were optimized for real‐time PCR through fragment resequencing of species‐specific sequence characterized amplified region (SCAR) markers. A total of 2289 potential interspecific hybrid bentgrass progeny were screened with 99.4% of the DNA extractions successful. The percent interspecific hybridization, on an individual plant basis, ranged from 1 to 85% and a total of 524 interspecific‐hybrid bentgrasses were identified representing 23% of plants tested. Interspecific hybridization is common between these bentgrass species and the proposed detection method provides a non‐transgenic, efficient, and cost‐effective method for interspecific hybrid identification.

Highly patterned primary succession after fluvial deposition of mining waste

This study examined early stages (3-5 years) of spontaneous primary vegetation succession on a model locality drastically altered by long term fluvial deposition of copper tailings in Eastern Serbia. In a large-scale survey, 115 samples of herbaceous vegetation (with a total of 75 species) were harvested from standardized 1m x 1m quadrates, and concomitant soil samples collected and their relevant physicochemical properties analysed. Primary succession depended on the establishment of five pioneer species (Rumex acetosella, Agrostis capillaris, Calamagrostis epigeios, Persicaria lapathifolia and Chenopodium botrys). Unconstrained ordination showed very clear vegetation gradients, significantly correlated with the key soil constraints (from Cu excess to low pH and nutrient deficiency), while the distribution of the five edificatory pioneers showed high degree of dependence on the micro-level habitat conditions. This work demonstrates that in such a complex setup with severe abiotic filtering, sufficient sampling effort can reveal strong patterns in a process commonly considered very stochastic.

Požarište bukove šume na lokalitetu Visoka stena druge godine posle požara na planini Vidlič

Second year after the fire broke out on Vidlič Mountain during the summer of 2007, the changes of burnt down beech wood vegtation were recorded. Fitocenological research of the beeech wood habitat at the location of Visoka Stena two years after the fire, was carried out in accordance with Braun-Blanquet method. The results of the terrain research were given in the form of fitocenological table. It was noticed that the most present species were Rubus idaeus, Epilobium angustifolium, Galium mollugo, Doronicum columnae, Lactuca muralis and Securigera varia. Turf grass such as Brachypodium sylvaticum, Poa nemoralis, Poa badensis, Festuca varia, Festuca valesiaca and Agrostis capillaris was also present which is a significant factor in the succession process as grass is a powerful colonist. The conclusion was that revitalization of the beech wood depends on how much the beech trees had been destroyed by the fire.

Impact of Organo-Mineral Fertilization upon Phytocoenosis and Feed Quality of the Grasslands in the Region of Transylvania

The paper aimes to present the analysis of the qualitative and quantitative changes in the feed obtained as a result of the Festuca rubra - Agrostis capillaris organic and mineral fertilization. The experiment was conducted in 2014, in Băișoara village (Cluj county), at an altitude of 1240 m above sea level. The experiment included four variants in three repetitions, as follows: first variant (V1) – control variant, (unfertilized); second variant (V2) fertilized with 10 t manure/ha; V3 – fertilized with 10 t manure/ha + 50 N + 25 P2O5 + 25 K2O kg/ha active substance/ha; V4 – fertilized with 20 t manure/ha; V5 – fertilized with 10 t manure/ha + 100 N + 50 P2O5 + 50 K2O kg/ha active substance/ha; V6 – fertilized with 100 N + 50 P2O5 + 50 K2O kg active substance/ha. The grass was cut once in 2014, in 2015 and in 2016 and the botanical composition was determined, along with the feed quality. The Festuca rubra L. and Agrostis capillaris L. grassland responded very well to the application of the organic and mineral fertilization.

Effects of rolling and N-fertilization on dollar spot and Microdochium patch on golf greens in Scandinavia

Dollar spot was officially documented in Scandinavia in 2013 and the spread and damage from this disease has increased during last years. In summer 2017, on the golf greens with red fescue (Vallda GC, Sweden) and with the mixture of red fescue, colonial bentgrass and annual bluegrass (Roskilde GC, Denmark) rolling 2 times per week reduced dollar spot 61% and 37% and rolling 4 times per week reduced dollar spot 95% and 54%, respectively. Thus, rolling 3-4 times per week can be recommended on golf greens with dollar spot pressure. In the experiment 2018 dollar spot was reduced 24% with increase in nitrogen from 150 to 240 kg ha-1 yr-1 on creeping bentgrass/annual bluegrass golf green (Kävlinge GK, Sweden). However, the increased N-rate lead to a higher degree Microdochium patch from 14% to 30%.

Using chemical fractionation and speciation to describe uptake of technetium, iodine and selenium by Agrostis capillaris and Lolium perenne

To understand the dynamic mechanisms governing soil-to-plant transfer of selenium (Se), technetium-99 (99Tc) and iodine (I), a pot experiment was undertaken using 30 contrasting soils after spiking with 77Se, 99Tc and 129I, and incubating for 2.5 years. Two grass species (Agrostis capillaris and Lolium perenne) were grown under controlled conditions for 4 months with 3 cuts at approximately monthly intervals. Native (soil-derived) 78Se and127I, as well as spiked 77Se, 99Tc and 129I, were assayed in soil and plants by ICP-MS. The grasses exhibited similar behaviour with respect to uptake of all three elements. The greatest uptake observed was for 99Tc, followed by 77Se, with least uptake of 129I, reflecting the transformations and interactions with soil of the three isotopes. Unlike soil-derived Se and I, the available pools of 77Se, 99Tc and 129I were substantially depleted by plant uptake across the three cuts with lower concentrations observed in plant tissues in each subsequent cut. Comparison between total plant offtake and various soil species suggested that 77SeO42−, 99TcO4− and 129IO3−, in soluble and adsorbed fractions were the most likely plant-available species. A greater ratio of 127I/129I in the soil solid phase compared to the solution phase confirmed incomplete mixing of spiked 129I with native 127I in the soil, despite the extended incubation period, leading to poor buffering of the spiked available pools. Compared to traditional expressions of soil-plant transfer factor (TFtotal), a transfer factor (TFavailable) expressed using volumetric concentrations of speciated ‘available’ fractions of each element showed little variation with soil properties.

Seasonal fluctuations of Zn, Pb, As and Cd contents in the biomass of selected grass species growing on contaminated soils: Implications for in situ phytostabilization

Phytostabilization aims to immobilize contaminants at the rhizosphere level using the root system of adapted plants. In order to exploit wild grasses with potential for phytostabilization, a screening throughout the year was conducted at a site contaminated by Pb and Zn. Three plant species were chosen: Agrostis capillaris, Arrhenatherum elatius and Calamagrostis epigeios. Rhizospheric soil and biomass was used for chemical characterization. Above- and below-ground was analyzed. For each sample, arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi colonization was determined. The highest concentrations of Pb were found in the A. capillaris rhizosphere (3417 mg kg−1), and in A. elatius for Zn (3876 mg kg−1). CaCl2-extractable Zn in the rhizosphere of C. epigeios was the lowest and Pb was lower for A. elatius. CaCl2-extractable Cd was neither species-dependent nor time-dependent. Arsenic was not species-dependent. The fractionation of target elements did not show differences between separate sampling campaigns and Pb was the only element that showed differences during the year. A. capillaris showed the best capacity to take up elements. The colonization by AMF did not show significant differences for different sampling times, or interactions between time and species, however differences were found for different species, i.e., C. epigeios showed significantly lower colonization by arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi. Our results indicate that A. capillaris appears to be a good indigenous candidate for phytostabilization.

Impacts of dominant plant species on trait composition of communities: comparison between the native and invaded ranges

AbstractMost studies on the impacts of plant invasions focus on species richness or diversity of invaded communities, but much less attention has been paid to structural changes such as the representation of species with different traits. To bridge this knowledge gap, we assess the impact of dominant species on the trait composition of recipient communities (i.e., how species with certain height, seed mass, specific leaf area, clonality, and life form are represented in the vegetation plots sampled). We sampled vegetation that comprised three species native to Eurasia and invasive in North America (i.e., Agrostis capillaris, Bromus tectorum, and Cirsium arvense) and three species native to North America and invasive in Europe (i.e., Aster novi‐belgii, Lupinus polyphyllus, and Solidago canadensis), in both their native and invaded ranges. This study system based on reciprocal inter‐continental invasions allowed us to assess whether the impact on trait composition differed (1) between the native and invaded ranges and (2) between the two continents. The relationships between species’ dominance and trait composition were tested using linear mixed‐effect models and ordination methods. A general trend was that dominant species with an impact on species richness also had an impact on trait composition, especially in North America, where even the native dominants affected the trait composition of the community. Further, the impact of Eurasian dominants in North America was stronger than that associated with the opposite direction of invasion, due to a strong negative effect of Eurasian invaders on local tall clonal perennials. Our results show that (1) the traits of species in the invaded community co‐determine the impact of invasion and are related to the impacts on species richness and composition; (2) the impacts on trait composition differ between the native and invaded ranges; and (3) the direction of invasion affects the impact on trait composition.

Fenton-Mediated Biodegradation of Chlorendic Acid - A Highly Chlorinated Organic Pollutant - By Fungi Isolated From a Polluted Site.

Chlorendic acid is a recalcitrant, highly chlorinated organic pollutant for which no microbial degrader has yet been identified. To address this knowledge gap, fungi were isolated from bulk soil, rhizosphere, and roots of the common bent (Agrostis capillaris) and the hybrid poplar [Populus deltoides × (Populus trichocarpa × P. deltoides) cv. Grimminge], both of which grow on a chlorendic acid polluted site in Belgium. Isolates were taxonomically identified and phenotypically screened for chlorendic acid degradation. Several fungal isolates could degrade chlorendic acid in liquid media up to 45%. The chlorendic acid degrading fungal isolates produced higher levels of hydroxyl radicals when exposed to the pollutant when compared to non-exposed controls, suggesting that the oxidative degradation of chlorendic acid occurs through production of Fenton-mediated hydroxyl radicals. In addition, the isolated Ascomycete Penicillium sp. 1D-2a degraded 58% of the original chlorendic acid concentration in the soil after 28 days. This study demonstrates that the presence of fungi in a chlorendic acid polluted soil can degrade this highly chlorinated organic pollutant. These results indicate that recalcitrant, seemingly non-biologically degradable organic pollutants, such as chlorendic acid, can be remediated by using bioremediation, which opens new perspectives for in situ bioremediation.