Collision Hazard Research Articles

Optimized Dynamic Collision Avoidance Algorithm for USV Path Planning.

Ship collision avoidance is a complex process that is influenced by numerous factors. In this study, we propose a novel method called the Optimal Collision Avoidance Point (OCAP) for unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) to determine when to take appropriate actions to avoid collisions. The approach combines a model that accounts for the two degrees of freedom in USV dynamics with a velocity obstacle method for obstacle detection and avoidance. The method calculates the change in the USV's navigation state based on the critical condition of collision avoidance. First, the coordinates of the optimal collision avoidance point in the current ship encounter state are calculated based on the relative velocities and kinematic parameters of the USV and obstacles. Then, the increments of the vessel's linear velocity and heading angle that can reach the optimal collision avoidance point are set as a constraint for dynamic window sampling. Finally, the algorithm evaluates the probabilities of collision hazards for trajectories that satisfy the critical condition and uses the resulting collision avoidance probability value as a criterion for course assessment. The resulting collision avoidance algorithm is optimized for USV maneuverability and is capable of handling multiple moving obstacles in real-time. Experimental results show that the OCAP algorithm has higher and more robust path-finding efficiency than the other two algorithms when the dynamic obstacle density is higher.

A method for hazard analysis of a floating nuclear power plant subjected to ship collision

Recently, a technology called the floating nuclear power plant (FNPP) has been developed around the world to maximize the use of ocean and nuclear energy. The FNPP is required to investigate the impact of a ship collision during its service. A rapid and accurate approach for assessing ship collision hazards is proposed in this work. First, the annual collision frequencies of four different ship types are calculated using the improved collision frequency formula, with standby and supply vessel frequencies of 1.63×10-3 and 2.12×10-3, respectively, and passing and fishing vessel frequencies of less than 10-7. Subsequently, a combination of finite element numerical simulation, back propagation (BP) neural network, and Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) is used to derive the probability density distribution of collision damage measures. By integrating the annual collision frequency and probability distribution, this paper analyses the hazard of ship collision with FNPP and derives the hazard curve.

Collision prevention of ship towing operation under environmental disturbance

Towing operations are highly reliant on the experience of the towing operators. Safety concerns arise when towing operations are subjected to environmental disturbances and dynamic traffic conditions. However, a systematic framework and approaches to enhance the safety and automation of towing operations remain lacking. This work proposes a framework of collision prevention of ship towing operations under environmental disturbance in near port waters. The focus is to prevent internal collisions between tug and assisted ship and provide early warning of possible collisions with other surrounding ships. A cooperative multi-agent control strategy is employed to specify the direction and magnitude of the towing force of the two tugs in real-time. Therefore, in the presence of environmental disturbance, the assisted ship can sail along the planned trajectory, and the acceptable safe geometric distance between each ship pair in the towing system is guaranteed. Further, a COLREGs-compliant collision alert system is designed to promptly remind the towing operators of a collision hazard with nearby ships, and different alert levels indicate different action obligations of towing operators. This proposed framework and developed methods are applied to a tandem towing system consisting of two tugs and one assisted ship to test its feasibility.

Optimization Of The Crew In The Implementation Of The Guard Service To Prevent The Occurrence Of Collision Hazards in KM. TL-IX

Officer has an important role in processing the motion of the ship when sailing to avoid things that are not desirable to avoid the dangers of collision. Formulation of the problem taken by the author in this thesis is the implementation of the guard service to prevent the occurrence of collision hazards in KM.TL-IX optimization of the use of navigation tools to prevent the occurrence of collision hazards. With qualitative research methods that produce descriptive data, the implementation of the guard service can be described clearly and concretely because the data obtained from direct interviews and supported by library methods that provide a clearer picture of a clearer picture of the information presented. The results obtained by the author during the research is the implementation of the guard service on the ship that has not been done properly because Mualim II undisciplined in carrying out guard duty, lack of attention and sense of responsibility of the Guard officer when carrying out guard duty on the bridge and the use of navigation tools that are not optimal. Discussion of the results of the study is the optimization of guard duty must be applied in accordance with STCW 1978 as amended in 2010, Mualim should also be guided by the Collision Regulation 1972 in the face of situations that allow the danger of collision. The use of navigation equipment as a detection of collision hazards should be able to produce maximum results for the Prevention of collision hazards and to avoid emergencies. In this case, it is concluded that the distribution of guard duty on board KM.TL-IX has been in accordance with regulations set internationally but in practice there are irregularities because the Mualim II is not responsible when carrying out his guard duty, a sense of lack of attention of the Guard officer during the bridge guard service and the use of navigation tools that are less than optimal by the mualim cause the results obtained are not optimal. The advice of the author is a senior Mualim should set an example to other mualim in the implementation of the guard service on schedule and must be carried out in a disciplined manner and the captain and the Mualim must have skills in operating navigation equipment.

USV collision hazard assessment and track planning algorithm

To improve the autonomous collision avoidance capability of an unmanned surface vehicle (USV) under complex working conditions, this study proposes a local track planning algorithm for USVs based on collision hazard assessment. This algorithm uses hierarchical analysis and discrepancy method to determine the collision risk index (CRI) values of different encounter scenarios, and then introduces fuzzy inference theory to construct a quantitative collision hazard assessment model based on the principle of combining subjective and objective assessment and the pessimistic principle of class classification, which provides a decision basis for a collision avoidance plan. In response to the unexpected encounter, an improved vector field histogram algorithm is proposed to use the CRI value of the obstacle as the key parameter of the histogram, solve the restricted area by removing the grid model and threshold improvement, establish the cost function to calculate the optimal sailing interval under the rules and dynamics constraints of the Convention on International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGS), and realise the local target point by tracking local track planning during autonomous collision avoidance. Simulation and on-lake experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of the collision hazard assessment model and local track planning algorithm proposed in this paper.

Optimal Design Method for Vessel-Bridge Collision Based on Life-Cycle Theory

As structures crossing waterways, bridges are obstacles to vessels. Vessel-bridge collisions are inevitable. They not only involve the safety of vessel passage but also seriously affect the safe operation of bridges. Vessel-bridge collisions cause not only huge economic losses and casualties but also severe political and environmental losses. Vessel collision safety of existing and new bridges is one of the key technical problems that engineers and bridge managers must solve. Comprehensive consideration of vessel-bridge collision risk loss and structural performance in the design stage to achieve optimal cost over the life cycle is an important aspect of bridge design. Based on the current life-cycle design theory of engineering structures, this paper proposes a theoretical framework for vessel-bridge collision optimization design based on the life cycle, which includes three parts: vessel-bridge collision probability analysis, vessel-bridge collision vulnerability analysis, and vessel-bridge collision hazard. Taking the minimum cost of the bridge structure in the design service life period as the objective function, the optimization design model and design process of vessel-bridge collision based on whole life are established, and the key problems to be solved in each part are expounded.

Analysis of models and algorithms used operationally in methods for the continuous monitoring of bird collision hazards

The results of the analysis of factors influencing the emergence of dangerous situations in the air (in short, aviation incidents) in the Polish Army show a significant negative impact of the environment on the flight operations performed. The most common cause of an aviation incident in the area of the environment is the collision of the aircraft with birds. The lack of methods for the continuous monitoring and forecasting of the level of risk of collision between aircraft and birds makes a significant gap in a proactive approach to the safety of flights in the Air Force of the Republic of Poland. This paper presents an overview of the most important methods for detection and forecasting of bird flight intensity, which have been used for construction of systems aiming to prevent collisions with birds and which are employed by the air forces of the United States, the Netherlands, Belgium and Israel. An accurate analysis of the models and algorithms used in the selected methods shows contemporary trends in research on the negative impact of the environment on flight safety. These methods show incomplete usefulness in Poland’s conditions, which justifies the need to develop a more appropriate method.

Geostationary Orbital Debris Collision Hazard after a Collision

Many space objects are densely distributed in the geostationary (GEO) band, and the long-term impact of the collision of GEO spacecraft and space debris on the GEO environment has attracted more and more attention. After summarizing the advantages and disadvantages of the long-term evolution model based on the “Cube” collision probability calculation model, the “Grid” model, a long-term evolution model especially suitable for GEO band, was established. For four types of collision and disintegration events, the “Grid” model was used to study the space environment in the GEO band after collisions between GEO spacecraft and space debris. Future collisions were simulated, and the number of space objects in the next 100 years was counted. Once space debris and massive spacecraft were completely disintegrated after collision, the number of space objects and the collision probability increased sharply, and this caused a collision cascading syndrome. Even if there was no initial disintegration event, collision and disintegration events occurred in the long-term evolution of the GEO band, which led to an increase in the number of space objects. However, the collision probability was much lower, and the number of space objects grew much more slowly without the initial collision.

An aero-hydro coupled method for investigating ship collision against a floating offshore wind turbine

Ship collision hazards with floating offshore wind turbines (FOWTs) has been identified and the dynamic responses of FOWT under ship collision scenarios are necessary to be investigated. This paper develops a numerical solver to address the challenge of considering wind-wave loads in the ship-FOWT collision analysis. The user-defined load subroutine, LOADUD, in LS-DYNA is utilized to model the wind, wave and mooring loads. A simplified aerodynamic model considering blade pitch strategy is used and the hydrodynamic loads are calculated based on potential-flow theory with a linear wave kinematic model. The mooring forces are considered with a linearized model. The implementation of the coupled solver is verified by conducting free decay test, wave-only and wind-only analysis, respectively and comparing them with the reference values. Good agreement has been achieved, indicating that the aero-hydro coupling effects can be accurately simulated by the numerical solver. With the developed method and solver, cases of ship collision with a spar-type floating wind turbine are simulated and both local structural deformation and global motions in 6DOF are obtained. The influence of velocity, flexibility of tower, deformability of the ship, wind-wave loads are further discussed. It is found that the impact velocity can greatly affect the structural responses and a high-speed impact can directly lead to tower collapse. By comparing the cases of ship collision with FOWT, and those with fixed-support wind turbine, the flexibility of wind turbine tower is found to rarely influence the energy dissipation under collision scenario of FOWT, while it is important for the collision scenario of fixed-support wind turbine. The wind-wave condition can be more hazardous as a smaller impact velocity can lead to structures collapsing. This is because, even though the structure can withstand the ship collision, the residual strength may not be enough for the following wind loads, which can result in the structure to finally collapse. Additionally, the proposed fully coupled method is used to validate one of the authors’ previous studies, which is a decoupled method regarding the ship-FOWT collision analysis [1]. The external dynamic results from two methods are compared and discussed. Good agreement is reached between two methods for low-velocity impact but for high-speed collision or collisions with serious deformation, limitations of decoupled method can be found because some basic assumptions of them are violated. The proposed method and solver can be used to evaluate the crashworthiness of FOWT during the engineering design phase.

РОЗРОБКА АЛГОРИТМУ ЗАГАЛЬНОЇ СТРАТЕГІЇ АВТОМАТИЗАЦІЇ ВИБОРУ КУРСУ УХИЛЕННЯ СУДНА

During ships maneuvering, the main cause of accidents is that navigators do not always objectively assess the situation and may make wrong decisions on the identification situation of a dangerous approach and a collision hazard. The automation of the deviation course choice is considered as the automation avoidance process. Purpose. The article highlights the tasks of formalizing the deviation course as a value of automatic control, and proposes the development of an algorithm for the strategy of changing the course. Methodology. Conducted processing of practical data of own vessel. The existing models of the ship's movement were analyzes, as well as the systems for the automatic stabilization of the ship. To construct the algorithm, the COLREGs–72 was decomposed with respect to the belonging of the initial situation of the vessels to one of the areas of mutual obligations. Findings. According to the results of the given theme, an algorithm of the general strategy of choosing the course of evasion of the vessel was developed, considering the requirements of COLREG–72 rules. It were considered the types of control of automatic regulators and their limitations at the initial and final moments of the ship's turn. It was found out. It is necessary to create a multilevel mathematical description, which will include subsystems of different levels, to build a model of an integrated control system. Originality. It was determined the efficiency of using the principle of execution of ship’s turns by the method of observation with a given influence by analyzing the existing models of ship’s movement. It was offered to use the range of acceptable values of courses during the development of the model of automation ship avoidance process. Practical value. An algorithm for the general strategy of automation of the avoidance course selection was developed.

Description and tests of a control system for automatic emergency braking of a car with an algorithm for predicting the adhesion of automobile tires to the road surface

Every year the number of cars in the world is steadily growing, which in turn leads to an increase in road accidents. Russia, as the largest country by area in the world, has a number of traffic-related features that are not typical for other regions, including changing road and climatic conditions. The sharp increase in the number of accidents in the first hours after precipitation is especially noticeable, that indicates the difficulty to adapt to the changing traffic situation for vehicle drivers. More than 60% of collisions, according to the traffic police databases for 2018-2019, occur due to incorrect predictions by drivers of the braking distance of their cars. As a rule, this can happen due to the inexperience of the driver, incorrect assessment of the current adhesion properties of the roadway, distraction to a mobile phone, the climate or multimedia system of the car, movement with insufficient visibility. Preventing collisions occurring in such scenarios is the main task of an intelligent driver assistance system such as the automatic emergency braking system. The main part of this system is an adequate assessment of dynamically changing road and climatic conditions and warning the driver of a possible collision hazard, as well as automatic action on the vehicle’s brake drive to prevent a collision. The article describes control algorithms for assessing and predicting dangerous situations.

Analytical solution of satellite formation impulsive reconfiguration considering passive safety constraints

To handle the potential collision hazards caused by utilizing original fuel optimal impulsive reconfiguration approach, an analytical impulsive satellite formation reconfiguration method in terms of relative eccentricity and inclination vectors (E/I vectors) considering passive safety constraints is proposed. Firstly, the mechanism why original fuel optimal impulsive reconfiguration approach based on relative E/I vectors may cause unsatisfied collision avoidance constraints is analyzed. The unsatisfied scenarios are divided into two cases, namely, the single impulse is too large case and the middle relative E vector is in passive unsafety region case. Secondly, with respect to the unsatisfied collision avoidance scenarios, corresponding analytical impulsive reconfiguration strategies with passive safety constraints are proposed. Finally, the results of the numerical simulations show that the proposed reconfiguration methods can handle the passive safety constraints.

Home-Use Evaluation of a Wearable Collision Warning Device for Individuals With Severe Vision Impairments

There is scant rigorous evidence about the real-world mobility benefit of electronic mobility aids. To evaluate the effect of a collision warning device on the number of contacts experienced by blind and visually impaired people in their daily mobility. In this double-masked randomized clinical trial, participants used a collision warning device during their daily mobility over a period of 4 weeks. A volunteer sample of 31 independently mobile individuals with severe visual impairments, including total blindness and peripheral visual field restrictions, who used a long cane or guide dog as their habitual mobility aid completed the study. The study was conducted from January 2018 to December 2019. The device automatically detected collision hazards using a chest-mounted video camera. It randomly switched between 2 modes: active mode (intervention condition), where it provided alerts for detected collision threats via 2 vibrotactile wristbands, and silent mode (control condition), where the device still detected collisions but did not provide any warnings to the user. Scene videos along with the collision warning information were recorded by the device. Potential collisions detected by the device were reviewed and scored, including contacts with the hazards, by 2 independent reviewers. Participants and reviewers were masked to the device operation mode. Rate of contacts per 100 hazards per hour, compared between the 2 device modes within each participant. Modified intention-to-treat analysis was used. Of the 31 included participants, 18 (58%) were male, and the median (range) age was 61 (25-73) years. A total of 19 participants (61%) had a visual acuity (VA) of light perception or worse, and 28 (90%) reported a long cane as their habitual mobility aid. The median (interquartile range) number of contacts was lower in the active mode compared with silent mode (9.3 [6.6-14.9] vs 13.8 [6.9-24.3]; difference, 4.5; 95% CI, 1.5-10.7; P < .001). Controlling for demographic characteristics, presence of VA better than light perception, and fall history, the rate of contacts significantly reduced in the active mode compared with the silent mode (β = 0.63; 95% CI, 0.54-0.73; P < .001). In this study involving 31 visually impaired participants, the collision warnings were associated with a reduced rate of contacts with obstacles in daily mobility, indicating the potential of the device to augment habitual mobility aids. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03057496.

Risk assessment of recent high-interest conjunctions

There have been several recent high-profile space events, notably the conjunctions of the Aeolus and Starlink spacecraft (both maneuverable) and the IRAS and GGSE-4 spacecraft (both dead). Here, we examine the timeline, activities, and risks associated with each of these conjunction events. To accomplish this, we fused observations from the Space Surveillance Network (SSN) to produce a sequence of high-accuracy orbit solutions and used that sequence to generate three-dimensional, dynamic progressions of each conjunction's miss distance, collision probability and its relation to the dilution threshold. Probability of Collision (Pc) is an essential tool for assessing conjunction threats. The Pc Topology tool characterizes the evolution of a conjunction's miss distance and collision probability, both of which are critical inputs to the maneuver avoidance decision-making process and exposing SSA deficiencies. We show the effect of combined hardbody radius (CHBR) on Pc as well as modeling with different shapes. Additionally, the Pc Topology tool reveals the calculation's placement in/out of the dilution region.The European Space Agency commanded the Aeolus spacecraft to perform an emergency maneuver to avoid this high-probability collision hazard. Our results indicate that this maneuver was warranted based upon ESA's decision threshold criteria and the Pc Topology trending analysis. While both collision events fortunately did not occur, we estimated the potential debris fields that these events may have generated had they occurred. Realizing that large debris production might be a factor in maneuver decision making, we then assess the impact of these fragmentation fields upon estimated operator workload and subsequent collision risk.

Effects of Situational Urgency on the Perception and Response Time to Lateral Collision Hazards

&lt;div class="section abstract"&gt;&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Situational urgency influences the perception and response time (PRT) interval of drivers confronting emergency collision hazards. However, a gap exists in our understanding of the movement characteristics of a collision hazard that directly contribute to a driver’s decision to initiate an evasive response. The aim of this experiment is to examine how the movement characteristics of intruding vehicles affect an oncoming driver’s PRT interval.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Fourteen subjects viewed first-person perspective recordings of a simulated vehicle travelling along a two-lane roadway. Collision hazards were introduced when stopped vehicles positioned at intersecting roadways unexpectedly intruded into the subject’s path. Subjects were instructed to ‘brake’ their vehicle by pressing a keyboard space bar when they perceived that evasive actions were required to avoid a collision. The duration of the PRT interval was considered as the time between the start of the intruder’s motion and when the ‘brake’ was applied. The time-to-impact (TTI) was manipulated by varying the intruders’ travel distance to impact and acceleration rate, resulting in 15 unique combinations of pre-impact hazard conditions.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Results revealed statistically significant main effects where relatively higher acceleration rates and shorter intruder travel distances produced the shortest PRTs. A statistically significant acceleration rate X travel distance interaction further revealed that PRT durations were dependent upon the particular combination of intruder motion parameters. However, the observed interaction effect was primarily driven by the time available between the start of an intruder’s motion and impact (i.e., TTI) which showed a significant linear trend.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;Combined, these findings have extended our understanding of the perceptual processes governing driver performance and will aid in unifying the literature regarding driver PRTs to lateral collision hazards.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

Pengaturan Pelaksanaan Dinas Jaga di Kapal Sesuai STCW 1978 as Amended 2010

Mualim jaga memiliki peran penting dalam mengolah gerak kapal pada saat berlayar untuk menghindari hal-hal yang tidak diinginkan untuk menghindari bahaya-bahaya tubrukan. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui pengaturan pelaksanaan dinas jaga dalam mencegah terjadinya bahaya tubrukan di MT. FORTUNE GLORY XLI, optimalisasi penggunaan alat-alat navigasi untuk mencegah terjadinya bahaya tubrukan dan upaya yang dilakukan dalam kondisi darurat dinas jaga. Metode penelitian menggunakan penelitian kualitatif. Hasil penelitian adalah pelaksanaan dinas jaga di kapal yang belum terlaksana dengan benar karena Mualim jaga tidak disiplin dalam melaksanakan tugas jaga, kurangnya rasa percaya diri sebagai mualim fresh graduate pada saat melaksanakan tugas jaga di anjungan serta penggunaan alat-alat navigasi yang belum optimal. Pembagian tugas jaga di atas kapal MT. FORTUNE GLORY XLI telah sesuai dengan peraturan yang ditetapkan secara internasional tetapi dalam pelaksanaannya terdapat penyimpangan karena Mualim I sebagai senior officer tidak bertanggung jawab saat melaksanakan tugas jaganya, rasa kurang percaya diri Mualim III sebagai fresh graduate serta penggunaan alat-alat navigasi yang kurang optimal oleh para mualim menyebabkan hasil yang didapat tidak maksimal.

Tactile-based wearable system for improved hazard perception of worker and equipment collision

Although past studies investigated automated hazard-identification methods, few explored workers' awareness capabilities for detected hazards. Recent research identified that workers have difficulty becoming aware of potential risks in harsh construction environments (limited vision and hearing). In response, this study investigated a new communication method with a wearable tactile-based system to improve worker's hazard perception. Built on past research, we identified key informational details to represent detected safety hazards, developed a tactile-based communication mechanism, and conducted a series of field trials. Results were assessed to determine the system's reliability with respect to several scenarios, conducted in a controlled environment for safety reasons. Test results demonstrated that the system is capable of alerting workers of pre-identified collision hazards without relying on their innate sensing (hearing and vision). Findings could help workers to become aware of detected hazards in harsh environments, where it is difficult to hear alerts or spot potential hazards.

Multisensor-driven real-time crane monitoring system for blind lift operations: Lessons learned from a case study

Crane operators are often unable to identify collision hazards due to limited visibility during blind lifts or when operating under cluttered conditions. This paper presents a multisensor-driven real-time crane monitoring system consisting of load tracking, obstacle detection, worker detection, collision warning, and 3D visualization modules. A combination of encoders, vision, and laser scanning systems is used to reconstruct a 3D workspace model of the crane environment and provide real-time spatial feedback to the operator. Field experimentation was carried out at an outdoor crane manufacturing facility under different blind lift scenarios. Results showed that the encoder-based load positioning system has a mean height estimation error within 0.33 m, the vision-based load positioning system has a mean centroid error of 0.454 m, and the worker detection system has a mean centroid error of 0.023 m. This study also provided important findings in terms of challenges and limitations in implementing a real-world crane monitoring system.

Closed-form expressions for improved impact resistant design of reinforced concrete beams

To facilitate the design of structural elements that are vulnerable to collision hazards, simple closed-form expressions have been stipulated in major codes of practice for quantifying the associated design impact actions. It is revealed in this article that the peak deflections from impact loading predicted using the closed-form expressions found in many of the major codes of practice around the world are in gross disagreement with observations from experimental testing in literature. This observation was following the review and assessment of the test results recorded from 68 dynamic experiments on reinforced concrete (RC) beams. The articles presenting these test results have not proposed new analytical models for guiding predictions nor have evaluated any existing analytical models. To fill this knowledge gap, this article proposes new closed-form expressions that were developed using displacement-based design principles and validated against 68 test results from literature, which showed the expressions provide accurate predictions of the deflection demand on RC beams subject to impact actions.

Pilot Visual Detection of Small Unmanned Aircraft on Final Approach during Nighttime Conditions

In December 2020, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) announced the release of a new final rule, permitting operators of small unmanned aircraft systems (sUAS) to perform routine night operations. Public comments to the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking indicated potential safety concerns regarding a pilot’s ability to spot a low-altitude sUAS during nighttime conditions. Leveraging data from the FAA’s UAS Sighting Report Database, the research team evaluated the significance of aircraft encounters with UAS at night. Researchers conducted an inflight experiment in which 10 pilots performed an instrument approach to airport during nighttime conditions in which a multi-rotor sUAS presented a potential collision hazard. The sUAS was equipped with lighting visible for 3 miles with a sufficient flash rate to avoid a collision, as specified by the new regulation. Participants performed five approaches, with the sUAS flying different scripted encounter profiles. Participants were asked to indicate when they visually spotted the sUAS, with sighting data recorded via an onboard observer. Geolocation information from both the aircraft and sUAS were compared at the time of each reported sighting to assess visibility distance and orientation. The sUAS was successfully spotted during 30 percent (n = 12) of the testing passes. Hovering sUAS were spotted at the same rate as moving sUAS, however, sUAS in motion were spotted at a much greater range. Researchers noted disproportionately higher spotting rates occurred when the sUAS was oriented on the starboard side of the aircraft vs. the port side. It is believed that airport lighting systems may have obscured or otherwise camouflaged portside sUAS encounters. When asked to estimate distance to an encountered sUAS, most participants underestimated, perceiving the sUAS to be much closer than reality. Additionally, the researchers assessed the potential for the participants to initiate evasive maneuvers, based on the distance and closure rate of the aircraft and sUAS at the time of sighting. Based on the FAA’s Aircraft Identification and Reaction Time Chart, collision avoidance would only have been successful during 15 percent of encounters (n = 6). The research team recommends Remote Pilots employ vigilant traffic awareness during nighttime operations, and leverage use of ADS-B (In) technology and monitor Common Traffic Advisory Frequencies to maintain situational awareness—particularly when operating in proximity to airports.