Collegiate Softball Players Research Articles

The Effects of Medicine Ball Training on Batting Velocity in Female Collegiate Softball Players

The Effects of Medicine Ball Training on Batting Velocity in Female Collegiate Softball Players

Utility of Novel Rotational Load-Velocity Profiling Methods in Collegiate Softball Players

Abstract Herring, CH, Beyer, KS, Redd, MJ, Stout, JR, and Fukuda, DH. Utility of novel rotational load-velocity profiling methods in collegiate softball players. J Strength Cond Res 38(1): 136–145, 2024—The purpose of this study was to determine the reliability of bat swing (BS) and rotational medicine ball throw (RMBT) load-velocity profiling (LVP) methods and explore relationships with batting performance in NCAA Division I softball players. Bat velocity was tracked with a swing sensor during the BS method, whereas an inertial measurement unit (IMU) tracked forearm velocity during the BS and RMBT methods. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) were used for relative reliability, and coefficient of variation (CV) was used for absolute reliability. With the exception of theoretical maximum velocity (V 0) using the average of top 2 peak velocities (PVavg) during the RMBT, no LVP variables were found to be reliable during the RMBT or BS method using the IMU (ICC ≤0.7; CV ≥15%). For the BS method with the swing sensor, all bat loads and V 0 had acceptable reliability using peak velocity (PV) and PVavg (ICC >0.7; CV <15%), whereas all LVP variables were highly related between the multiple-load and two-load models when using PV and PVavg (r = 0.915–0.988; p < 0.01). There were significant relationships (r = 0.603–0.671; p < 0.05) between PV using the 0.99 Kg bat load and V 0, and several in-game batting statistics. Practitioners may use the BS with the swing sensor as a rotational LVP assessment, although they should be cautious of aiming to improve batting performance in collegiate softball players based on the correlations reported until further research is performed.

Single-Leg Squat and Reported Pain in Collegiate Softball Pitchers.

Single-leg squat (SLS) performance is related to altered mechanics related to injury during the windmill softball pitch; however, it is unknown if SLS kinematics differ between softball pitchers with and without upper extremity pain. The purpose of this study was to compare knee valgus, trunk rotation, trunk lateral flexion, and trunk flexion during an SLS in collegiate softball pitchers with and without self-reported upper extremity pain. It was hypothesized that those who reported upper extremity pain would show increased compensatory trunk and knee kinematics compared with those without pain. Controlled laboratory study. A total of 75 collegiate softball players (mean age, 20.4 ± 1.7 years; mean height, 173.3 ± 7.7 cm; mean weight, 79.1 ± 11.6 kg) participated and were placed in pain (n = 20) or no-pain (n = 55) groups. Participants performed an SLS once per side. Kinematic data were collected at 100 Hz using an electromagnetic tracking system. A 2 (pain vs no pain) × 2 (descent vs ascent) × 2 (drive leg vs stride leg) mixed-design multivariate analysis of variance with Wilks lambda distribution was used to determine differences in drive-leg and stride-leg lower body mechanics between the descent and ascent phases of the SLS between the pitchers in the current study with and without pain. There was no significant effect in the 3-way interaction between upper extremity pain, side, and phase (Λ = 0.960; F[4, 70] = 0.726; P = .577; η2 = 0.04). However, there were large effects for the phase × side interaction (Λ = 0.850; P = .021; η2 = 0.150). There was a main effect of phase (Λ = 0.283; P < .001; η2 = 0.717). Study findings indicated that SLS mechanics do not differ between collegiate softball pitchers with and without reported upper extremity pain. Drive-leg mechanics showed more stability in the SLS than stride-leg mechanics. Softball pitchers are at risk of upper extremity injury. It is important to identify mechanisms that may lead to pain in order to mitigate the risk of injury.

Effects of Resistance Training and Whole-Body Electromyostimulation on Muscular Strength in Female Collegiate Softball Players

Strength and conditioning coaches frequently use traditional resistance training (TRT) to build strength. However, in recent years, whole-body electromyostimulation (WB-EMS) was used in elite athletes to increase muscle strength. This study aimed to assess the effect of two different types of training on muscular strength. Sixty female collegiate players (Age = 23.52±1.89 years, Height = 156.20±1.71cm; Mass = 53.21±3.17kg) participated in this study and were randomly assigned to three training groups. All groups trained as usual for eight weeks, except for the first group, which received additional TRT. The second group received additional electrical stimulation training, and the third group did not receive any additional training following the regular softball bat swing training. Muscular strength (upper and lower body) was assessed by a 3RM bench press and a 3RM squat test before and after the eight-week programme. The primary findings indicate that after eight weeks of training, upper body and lower body strength increased significantly in both the TRT and WB-EMS groups (p = 0.000 and p = 0.000, respectively) in comparison to the control group. However, the t value indicated that the TRT group improved both upper body strength (20.18) and lower body strength (29.18) more than the WB-EMS group (upper body = 6.18; lower body = 6.47). The findings demonstrate the efficacy of both training modalities for increasing muscular strength and suggest that TRT be prioritised over whole-body electrical stimulation training for increasing muscular strength in collegiate softball players.

Upper Quarter Y-Balance Test in Collegiate Softball Players: Bilateral Arm Comparison and Influence of Reach Order

The upper quarter Y-balance test is an upper extremity, closed kinetic chain assessment that requires individuals to reach in three directions while in a three-point plank position. The upper quarter Y-balance test was performed in 22 collegiate softball players (19.95 ± 1.52 years) to determine the (a) differences between throwing and nonthrowing (NT) sides and (b) influence of reach sequence. While stabilizing on the NT side, participants reached significantly further in the inferolateral direction than the throwing side (NT: 83.7 ± 12.2% arm length; throwing: 80.1 ± 10.5% arm length; p = .03; effect size = −0.57). Altering reach sequence significantly influenced medial reach (p &lt; .01, effect size = 0.66) and composite score (p = .017, effect size = 1.03) when stabilizing on the NT side. Asymmetries in upper quarter Y-balance test in collegiate softball players should be interpreted cautiously, and an ordered test sequence should be consistently followed.

Comparison between traditional resistance training and whole-body electrical stimulation in improving muscular strength

Background: Greater muscular strength can enhance the ability to perform general sports skills such as jumping, sprinting, and direction tasks. Resistance Training (RT) is broadly applied by strength and conditioning coaches to increase strength. However, Whole-Body Electromyostimulation (WB-EMS) recently served as an alternative method to increase muscular strength in high-performance athletes. This study aimed to examine the effects of two different training modalities on muscular strength. Methods: Sixty female collegiate softball players (Age = 23.52 ± 1.89 years; Height = 156.20 ± 1.71 cm; Mass = 53.21 ± 3.17 kg) were randomly assigned into 3 groups. All groups trained as usual for 8 weeks, with the first group performed 100 repetitions of dry swing (normal bat swing practice in softball). The second and third group performed a combination of dry bat swing with RT and WB-EMS, respectively. Muscular strength (upper body and lower body) for the 3 groups was evaluated before and after the 8-week program. Results: The main results showed that after the eight-week training, the upper and lower body strength significantly increased in both RT and WB-EMS groups compared to the control group (p = 0.000, and p = 0.000, respectively). While both groups contributed to the increase in muscular strentgth following 8 weeks of training, it was the RT that resulted in a larger magnitude of increase in strength. Conclusion: This study concluded that RT should be emphased in high performance athlete training while recognizing the potential benefit of WB-EMS in enhancing muscular strength.

Shoulder Strength and Range of Motion in Healthy Collegiate Softball Players.

Shoulder range of motion (ROM) and strength are key injury evaluation components for overhead athletes. Most normative values are derived from male baseball players, with limited information specific to female softball players. To determine between-limbs differences in shoulder ROM and strength in healthy collegiate softball players. Descriptive laboratory study. University research laboratory and collegiate athletic training room. Twenty-three healthy collegiate softball players (age = 19.9 ± 1.2 years, height = 170.5 ± 4.3 cm, mass = 78.4 ± 11.3 kg). Shoulder ROM (internal rotation [IR] and external rotation [ER]), isometric strength (IR, ER, flexion, abduction [135°], and horizontal abduction), and a measure of dynamic strength (Upper Quarter Y-Balance Test) were obtained. Paired-samples t tests were used to determine between-limbs differences for each outcome measure. Participants had more ER ROM (12° more) and less IR ROM (12° less) in the dominant arm, relative to the nondominant arm. No differences were present between limbs for any of the isometric strength measures or the Upper Quarter Y-Balance Test reach directions. Female collegiate softball players demonstrated typical changes in ER and IR ROM in the dominant arm and relatively symmetric performance across strength measures, which contrasts with previous findings in male baseball players.

The impact of sport specialisation on the lived experience and development of collegiate softball players

ABSTRACT Many athletes see sport specialisation as a strategy for further leveraging their athletic talent and improving their chances of admission and scholarship to highly selective colleges and universities. While specialisation might afford an opportunity for increased athletic success, there are also reported drawbacks to this approach (e.g., burnout, injury, social isolation, mental illness, and increased resentment to sport). The purpose of this study was to explore the lived experiences of Division I softball players related to sport specialisation and athletic development. Researchers used a descriptive phenomenological approach. Four collegiate softball players were interviewed with open-ended questions. The players’ lived experiences of sport specialisation were illustrated through some of the overarching themes: (1) the journey to sport specialisation, (2) self-determination for elite performance, and (3) life after youth softball.

Assessing full body impulsive ability using a range of medicine ball loads for the backward overhead medicine ball throw

ABSTRACT The potential for high performance in many sports can be assessed by quantifying whole-body explosiveness. The backwards overhead medicine ball (BOMB) throw is commonly-used to tests this ability, but the effect of varied loading on test execution is unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of different medicine ball (MB) loads on force, velocity, and power output during the BOMB throw. Female collegiate softball and rugby players (n=31) performed the BOMB throw on a force plate using 2.7, 3.6, 4.5, and 5.5 kg MBs, with three throws per load in a randomised order, and 30 seconds rest between throws. A series of Repeated Measures ANOVAs noted no differences (p>0.05) in peak power, peak force, peak velocity, force at the moment of peak power, or velocity at the moment of peak power, across MB loads. The lack of differences among these loads indicates that coaches can likely compare kinetic characteristics of the BOMB throw within this range (2.7-5.5 kg). Therefore, coaches can use the BOMB throw with 2.7-5.5 kg MBs for training or measurement among female athletes to obtain reference data for programming or evaluation.

The Effects Of Kinesio Tape On Throwing Velocity And Accuracy In Collegiate Softball Players

The Effects Of Kinesio Tape On Throwing Velocity And Accuracy In Collegiate Softball Players

Scapular Stabilizer Force Output Measurements in Collegiate Softball Players Over the Course of Fall, Non-traditional Season

Please enjoy Volume 6, Issue 1 of the JSMAHS. In this issue, you will find Professional, Graduate, and Undergraduate research abstracts, and case reports.

Getting to first base: Running is faster than sliding in collegiate baseball and softball players

Previous research has shown no significant differences in time required to reach a base when sliding head-first or feet-first, but few studies have compared running through and sliding into first base in baseball players, and none have included softball players. The purpose of the present study was to examine differences in time required to reach first base when running, sliding head-first, and sliding feet-first. Twelve female collegiate softball players (20.0 ± 1.3 years old) and 14 male collegiate baseball players (20.6 ± 1.6 years old) performed three trials each of running, sliding head-first, and sliding feet-first in a randomized, counterbalanced order with 1–2 min of rest between each trial. Testing was conducted in an indoor practice facility and trials were timed using a dual-beam wireless infrared timing system. Significant differences between the three approaches were found for both softball ( p &lt; .001) and baseball players ( p &lt; .001), and follow-up pairwise comparisons showed running through the base was significantly faster than sliding head-first ( p = .001 for softball, p = .009 for baseball) and feet-first ( p &lt; .001 for softball, p = .002 for baseball). Differences between sliding head-first and feet-first were not significant in either group. Running through first base is significantly faster than sliding in collegiate baseball and softball players. Sliding into first base should only be attempted when avoiding a tag from or a collision with a fielder.

The speed of perception: the effects of over-speed video training on pitch recognition in collegiate softball players.

During interceptive motor tasks, experts demonstrate distinct visual search behavior (from novices) that is reflective of information extraction from optimal environmental cues, which subsequently aids anticipatory movements. While some forms of visual training have been employed in sport, over-speed video training is rarely applied to perceptual-cognitive sport contexts. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether over-speed video training can enhance visual information processing and augment visual behavior for a pitch-recognition task. Twelve collegiate softball players were recruited for the study. A between-subjects, repeated measures design was implemented to assess changes in participants' pitch recognition on a video-based occlusion task after one of two training interventions: (A) over-speed video training (n = 6) or (B) regular video training (n = 6). Both training interventions required individuals to view 400 videos of different pitches over the span of 10days. The over-speed group viewed the videos at gradually increasing video speeds (+ 0.05 × each day). Performance (i.e., identifyingpitch type and location),quiet-eye duration (i.e., total QE, QE-early and QE-late) and cortical activation (i.e., alpha wave activity/asymmetry; F3/F4 and P7/P8) were measured during the pitch-recognition tasks. Results showed significant performance improvements across groups, but no differences between groups. Both interventions were associated with a reduction in alpha wave activity for P8, an increase in alpha activity for F3, and a significant increase in QE-late. An increase in QE-late was associated with a decrease in P7/P8 alpha asymmetry and improvements in pitch-type recognition. Consistent with the extant literature, our results support the importance of a later QE offset for successful performance on perceptual tasks, potentially extending to perceputal-motor tasks. Although participants in the over-speed condition did not experience significantly larger improvements in performance than controls, this study highlights the association between QE and brain activity reflective of expertise.

Total and Regional Body Composition of NCAA Division I Collegiate Female Softball Athletes.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate total, regional, and throwing versus non-throwing arm body composition measures across the 4 major positions of NCAA Division I female softball players using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (n=128). Total and regional total mass (TM), fat mass (FM), lean mass (LM), bone mineral density (BMD), bone mineral content (BMC), and visceral adipose tissue were measured. Athletes were separated into: pitchers (n=32), catchers (n=13), outfielders (n=39), and infielders (n=44). ANOVA and Tukey's HSD assessed total and regional differences between positions. Although no significant total or regional LM differences were observed across positions, outfielders had significantly (p=0.006-0.047) lower total-body, arm, and trunk TM and FM, leg FM, and leg BMC in comparison to pitchers. The throwing arm had significantly (p<0.0001-0.018) greater LM, BMD, and BMC than the non-throwing arm for all positions. Notably, there were minimal body composition differences among softball positions, with the primary differences being that pitchers had larger total and regional fat values than outfielders. The throwing arm of all positions had greater LM, BMD, and BMC than the non-throwing arm. These values can be used by coaches and trainers as descriptive DXA data for collegiate softball players.

Relationship between General and Sport-Related Drinking Motives and Athlete Alcohol Use and Problems

Objective: Alcohol use (and adverse consequences due to alcohol use) among college student-athletes is a common occurrence and consequently garners attention as a health concern within athletic departments and the NCAA. One of the strongest predictors of alcohol use in athletes is motivation to drink. However, not much is known about the influence of alcohol use motivations on drinking in collegiate athletes. Therefore, this study examined the influence of sport-related and general drinking motives on alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. Method: Participants were female collegiate softball players (N = 721) from 62 NCAA teams. Athletes completed the Athlete Drinking Scale (Martens et al., 2005), the Drinking Motives Questionnaire, revised (Cooper, 1994; Cooper et al., 1992), alcohol consumption measures, and the Rutgers Alcohol Problems Index (White & Labouvie, 1989). Multilevel modeling was used to analyze the data. Results: Higher scores on Positive Reinforcement motives were associated with greater alcohol consumption, heavy episodic drinking, and alcohol-related problems. Enhancement motives were positively associated with heavy episodic drinking and alcohol-related problems, while Coping motives were positively associated with alcohol-related problems. Lower scores on Conformity motives were related to higher alcohol consumption, whereas higher scores were related to more alcohol-related problems. Conclusions: These results assist in understanding salient drinking motives among athletes while accounting for nesting effects of athletes within teams. Results demonstrate alcohol use as a perceived means of reward for hard work or good athletic performance, thus attempts to control alcohol use in college athletics should emphasize alternative methods to positively reinforce efforts or celebrate victories.

Acute Hip Abduction Fatigue on Lumbopelvic-Hip Complex Stability in Softball Players.

During an overhead throw, the gluteal muscle group stabilizes the lumbopelvic-hip complex (LPHC), leading to efficient energy transfer from the lower to upper extremity. It has been shown that LPHC instability can lead to throwing pathomechanics. The single leg squat has become a common assessment for LPHC stability, and could be used to determine the effects of fatigue on throwing athletes. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an acute abduction fatigue protocol on the LPHC of collegiate softball players via the single leg squat assessment of the leg ipsilateral to the throwing arm. Eighteen National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I softball players volunteered (20.5±1.9 years; 169.4±10.0 cm; 72.9±11.5 kg). Each participant performed a single leg squat on the leg ipsilateral to the throwing arm prior to and post side-lying hip abduction fatigue. LPHC and lower extremity kinematics were examined to determine potential effects of fatigue on LPHC stability. There were no significant main effects or interactions of LPHC or lower extremity kinematics during the single leg squat assessments across the fatigue protocol. Based on the current study, an acute bout of fatigue to the hip abductors does not affect LPHC stability in single leg squat execution.

The effect of hand grip strength and trunk rotation strength on throwing ball velocity

Throwing ball velocity is one of indicator that determines the softball performance. However, most of the training on throwing only focused on the major muscles and they neglected the assisted muscles such as hand grip and trunk rotation muscles that also important in improving the throwing performance. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to identify the effect of hand grip strength training, and trunk rotation strength training towards the throwing ball velocity among female collegiate softball players. 54 female collegiate softball players were equally divided into three training groups which are hand grip strength training group (HG), trunk rotation strength training group (TR), and basic strength training group (CG). All the groups performing the same basic strength training program with different additional strength training according to the group`s treatment. Each group trained 3 days per week for 6 weeks. Throwing ball velocity was assessed before (pretest) and after (posttest) the 6 weeks training program and one-way between groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to compare the mean gained score in throwing ball velocity between each group. The result shows that all group significantly differences in throwing ball velocity (p&lt;.05). The post-hoc test indicates that all training group significantly differences to each other except for HG and TR group. This study demonstrates that additional training of HG and TR are able to increase the throwing ball velocity rather than performing the basic strength training only. However, both strength training provides a similar impact on throwing ball velocity, therefore, both of the training are considered important to improve the throwing performance.

Kinematic differences between hitting off a tee versus front toss in collegiate softball players

The purpose of this study was to compare kinematics of two hitting conditions: stationary tee and front toss from a practice pitcher. Twenty-two NCAA Division I Collegiate softball players (20.3 ± 1.5 years; 166.6 ± 6.3 cm; 68.0 ± 7.5 kg) participated. Participants executed five maximum effort swings from a stationary tee and five swings from a front toss practice pitcher. Data for each kinematic variable were averaged for the five maximal effort swings of each condition and analyzed using a within-subject repeated measures ANOVA. The front toss condition revealed significantly greater lead knee flexion at foot contact and greater trunk rotation towards the back side at ball contact. The tee condition revealed greater trunk lateral flexion to the back side at foot contact, greater trunk rotation towards the lead side at follow through, and greater pelvis rotation towards the lead side at follow through. This study most significantly indicates that swing mechanics are different between specific training methods; therefore, athletes should implement techniques most applicable to a competition setting such as the front toss.

A comparison of base running start techniques in collegiate fastpitch softball athletes

This study examined the time difference between three different base running start techniques. Thirteen Division II collegiate softball players performed maximal sprints off a softball bag at two different distances. Sprint times at 4.57 and 18.29 meters for each technique were measured using Fusion Sport’s Smartspeed System. At both 4.57 and 18.29 meters, the rocking start (0.84 ± 0.10; 3.04 ± 0.16 s) was found to be significantly faster (in seconds) than both the split technique (1.01 ± 0.04; 3.27 ± 0.12 s) and the crouch technique (1.05 ± 0.12; 3.35 ± 0.16 s) ( p < 0.05). Results recommend that the rocking start technique be implemented as the starting position off the bag in fastpitch softball. Implementing the rocking technique may enhance performance and success in stealing and base running.

Kinematics of Softball Hitting Off of a Tee versus Front Toss

Hitting a baseball or softball is one of the most difficult skills in sport. Use of a batting tee as a training technique is viewed as principle for establishing and improving basic fundamentals of hitting. PURPOSE: To determine lower extremity (knee flexion, pelvis rotation) and trunk (flexion, lateral flexion and rotation) kinematics hitting off a tee and hitting front toss. It was hypothesized that there would be no difference in lower extremity and trunk kinematics between the two conditions. METHODS: Nineteen National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I collegiate softball players (20.51±1.53 yrs; 68.99±7.68 kg; 166.87±6.00 cm) participated. Participants were instructed to execute five maximal effort swings hitting from a tee and five maximal effort swings hitting front toss from a pitcher at 9.14 m (30 ft). The hitting motion was divided into five events: stance (ST), load (LD), foot contact (FC), ball contact (BC), and follow-through (FT). RESULTS: Data failed the test of normality; therefore, a Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to determine if there were median differences in hitting kinematics between two hitting conditions during each hitting event. Results revealed kinematic differences in trunk flexion at load (z = -2.55, p = 0.01). No other significant results were found between hitting events and examined variables during each condition. CONCLUSION: Though there were minimal kinematic differences in the two hitting conditions, these differences were at swing initiation and not exhibited beyond ball contact. These findings are beneficial for this population as decreased variability in swing mechanics across various conditions is desired. Therefore, it is suggested that future research continue to examine hitting mechanics from not only a kinematic approach but also from a kinetic and performance approach.