Collegiate Gymnasts Research Articles

Comparison of Tibial Strength Between Adult Female Dancers, Gymnasts, and Runners

The magnitude, frequency, and patterns of mechanical loading are important factors in how weight-bearing bones adapt their strength. Overall, adolescent and adult female athletes that participate in high impact physical activity have greater gains in bone strength than athletes that participate in low-repetitive impact activities (Nichols et al., 2007, Uusi-Rasi et al., 2006, and Nikander et al., 2010); however, it is not clear how medium impact activities (dance) compare to high impact activities (gymnastics) and low-repetitive activities (running) with respect to their osteogenic effects at the tibia. PURPOSE: To compare tibial strength between female adult dancers, gymnasts, and runners. METHODS: Eleven eumenorrheic dance majors and eleven eumenorrheic collegiate gymnasts (ages 18–22) were recruited. Runner (n=22) and sedentary control (n=19) data were obtained from the University of Minnesota Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Health database (Smock et al., 2009 and Bruininks, 2009). Participants’ non-dominant tibias were scanned using peripheral quantitative computed tomography at two locations - 4% (metaphyseal) and 66% (diaphyseal) sites from the distal tibia endplate. The scans provided two estimates of bone strength; bone strength index (BSI; mg.mm-4/10,000) and polar strength-strain index (SSIp, mm3). BSI is an estimate of bone compressive strength at metaphyseal sites and SSIp is an estimate of bone’s ability to resist torsion at diaphyseal sites (Smock et. al. 2009; Farr et al. 2010). BSI at the 4% site and the SSIp at the 66% site were compared between groups using linear regression models. RESULTS: Participants did not differ in age, weight, or tibial length. After controlling for height and body mass, SSIp did not differ significantly between groups. Dancers, gymnasts and runners had significantly greater BSI (33.2%, 43.7% and 20%, respectively) than controls (p=0.001, p<0.001, and p=0.03, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Despite differences in impact type, dance, gymnastics, and running appear to be effective at increasing distal tibia compressive strength - which is known to delay or prevent bone fragility later in life. Future studies should analyze the magnitude and frequency of loadings to further identify which activities provide the greatest osteogenic benefits in adult females.

Muscle and fat mapping of the trunk: a case study

The following case study examines the muscle and fat thickness of the trunk in a 25-year-old, former collegiate gymnast. Previous studies have quantified total and regional skeletal muscle mass using magnetic resonance imaging and muscle volume and distribution using ultrasound. However, to the best of our knowledge, the distribution and symmetry of skeletal muscle and subcutaneous adipose tissue (AT) of the anterior and posterior trunk have never been investigated. Ultrasound was used to identify skeletal muscle and AT thickness of 143 data points on the anterior portion of the trunk and 140 data points on the posterior portion of the trunk. Muscle thickness values in the anterior trunk ranged from 0.5 to 5.6cm, and muscle thickness of the posterior trunk ranged from 0.6 to 6.6cm. Total muscle volume of the trunk was 2935 and 4195cm(3) for the anterior and posterior portions, respectively. The total predicted muscle mass in the anterior and posterior trunk was 7.4kg. This case study begins to provide a picture of the distribution and symmetry of skeletal muscle and AT of the trunk. Future studies are necessary to confirm these findings and examine relationships among different populations.

Body Composition, Muscle Quality and Scoliosis in Female Collegiate Gymnasts: A Pilot Study.

Research has demonstrated an elevated prevalence of body weight concerns and scoliosis among female gymnasts. The purpose of the current pilot study was to evaluate the utility of ultrasonography and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) as practical imaging modalities to measure body composition and spinal curvature variables that may correlate with performance in female collegiate gymnasts (n=15). DXA was used to evaluate body composition and lateral spinal curvature, utilizing a modified Ferguson method. Echo intensity (EI) and cross-sectional area (CSA) of the vastus lateralis were determined from a panoramic cross-sectional ultrasound image. For returning athletes (n=9), performance scores from the previous season were averaged to quantify performance. The average performance score was correlated with lean mass of the arms (R=0.714; P=0.03) and right leg (R=0.680; P=0.04). Performance was not correlated with total mass, fat mass or body fat percentage (P>0.10). Scoliosis was identified in 3 of 15 scans (20%). Echo intensity and CSA of the vastus lateralis were inversely correlated with each other (R=-0.637, P=0.01), but not with other measures of body composition or performance. Results suggest that limb LBM may be a determinant of gymnastics performance, and DXA may provide important health and performance-related information for female collegiate gymnasts.

Traditional Vs. Suspended Push-up Muscle Activation In Collegiate Female Soccer Players And Gymnasts

Many strength training programs incorporate push-up exercises, which primarily activate upper body muscles. Past data supports the fact that shoulder girdle muscles [i.e., triceps (T) and anterior deltoids (AD)] exhibit greater electromyography (EMG) activity when a push-up is performed on a stable [i.e., traditional (TD)] vs. unstable [(i.e., suspended (SP)] surface (Andrade, 2011). While greater muscle activation has been shown for healthy males (Sandhu, 2008), male athletes (Willardson, 2010), sedentary individuals (Syed, 2014), and lower body trained athletes (Syed, 2013) very little research has been conducted on T and AD muscle activation in whole body trained athletes (e.g. gymnasts) PURPOSE: To determine if differences exist in muscle activation between push-ups in a TD vs. SP environment in collegiate gymnasts (GM) vs. collegiate female soccer players (SO). METHODS: Nine apparently healthy GM (Ht: 162.1±2.6 cm; Wt: 64.6±6.7 kg) and 24 SO (Ht: 164.8±7.6 cm; Wt: 61.7±8.4 kg) participated voluntarily. In a single session participants performed three consecutive TD and three consecutive SP push-ups, in a counterbalanced fashion with three minutes rest between trials. A repeated measures analysis was conducted using SPSS (v22) to analyze the difference between the T and AD muscle activation within and between the two push-up positions. RESULTS: Analyses were conducted using the absolute integral, which measured electrical activity from a standardized baseline. Significantly higher muscle activation was observed for SP compared to TD push-ups within the SO (T: 181.1±227.9mV, p=0.001; AD: 219.1±320.5mV, p=0.003) but not in the GM (T: 82.3±692.5mV, p=0.731; AD: 132.1±216.7mV, p=0.105) group. CONCLUSIONS: The significant increase in muscle activation can primarily be attributed to the lack of hand stability in the SP position. While the SO participants in this study are well trained, their regimen primarily activates lower body muscles compared to GM subjects who are whole body trained. These findings provide further support that well-trained athletes exhibit increased activation in muscles that are not part of their primary sport focus. Moreover, performing SP push-ups can effectively increase T and AD activation, primarily in lower body trained athletes.

Former Collegiate Gymnasts Maintain Higher Bone Mineral Density After A 34-Year Retirement

Former Collegiate Gymnasts Maintain Higher Bone Mineral Density After A 34-Year Retirement

Body Composition, Muscle Quality and Scoliosis in Female Collegiate Gymnasts: A Pilot Study

Body Composition, Muscle Quality and Scoliosis in Female Collegiate Gymnasts: A Pilot Study

Evaluation of Men's and Women's Gymnastics Injuries: A 10-Year Observational Study.

Background:Injuries are common in collegiate gymnasts. Most descriptive studies of injury patterns in collegiate gymnasts are limited in duration or are only inclusive of women.Hypothesis:Injury patterns in men and women differ significantly; women sustain a higher rate of injuries than men.Study Design:Descriptive epidemiology study.Level of Evidence:Level 4.Methods:Musculoskeletal and head injuries reported in the Sports Injury Monitoring System at a single National Collegiate Athletic Association institution for Division 1 men’s and women’s gymnastics teams between 2001 and 2011 were identified. The variables assessed included sex, injured body part, year of eligibility, injury severity, surgical procedures, missed time, and team activity at the onset of injury.Results:From 2001 to 2011, 64 male gymnasts sustained 240 injuries, while 55 female gymnasts sustained 201 injuries. The injury incidence was 8.78 per 1000 athlete-exposures for men and 9.37 per 1000 athlete-exposures for women. Female gymnasts more commonly suffered major injuries compared with men, and more commonly underwent surgery after injury (24.4% of female injuries required surgery vs 9.2% in males). The anatomic region most often injured in men was the hand and wrist (24%). The anatomic region most often injured in women was the foot and ankle (39%). Overall, injury rates were highest in freshman-eligible athletes.Conclusion:Injury rates, overall, were similar in men and women gymnasts. Female gymnasts more commonly underwent surgical procedures after injury. Injury rates were higher in freshman-eligible athletes and decreased with increasing year of experience.Clinical Relevance:Specific attention should be given to gymnasts transitioning into collegiate-level gymnastics; injury prevention strategies should focus on the ankle and foot, as well as the elbow, wrist, and hand.

Validity of a portable computer‐based ultrasound system for estimating adipose tissue in female gymnasts

The aim of this investigation was to determine the validity of a portable ultrasound instrument for estimating adipose tissue (AT%) compared to dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in female collegiate gymnasts. Participants had their measurements taken in the following order: urine-specific gravity, body mass, height, ultrasound determined AT% (1-site and 3-site) and DXA determined AT%. The current pilot study found significant differences between estimates of AT% (P < 0·001). Pearson's correlations between DXA and 1-site and 3-site estimates were r = 0·786 and r = 0·753, respectively. The standard error of the estimate between DXA and 1-site and 3-site estimates was 3·6% and 3·9%, respectively. However, the average deviation of individual scores from the line of identity was 6·7% for the 1-site and 4·9% for the 3-site, when compared with the DXA estimate. The results of this preliminary study found that the portable ultrasound was not a valid estimate of AT% when compared with the DXA estimate in female collegiate gymnasts.

Interspinous Ligament Calcification in a Collegiate Gymnast

A 21-year-old collegiate gymnast presented with midline pain at the thoracolumbar junction upon back extension and a "gritty" sensation at that level. Ultrasound revealed an area of hyperechogenicity, representing a calcification, within the interspinous ligament at the area of maximal tenderness at the T12-L1 level. Under ultrasound guidance, multiple fenestrations were made into the calcification and a mixture of lidocaine and triamcinolone was injected. The patient experienced immediate improvement in her symptoms, and resolution occurred during the subsequent 6 weeks; she was able to make a gradual return to gymnastics. Interspinous ligament calcification in a young athlete has not been previously reported.

Flame Retardant Exposure among Collegiate United States Gymnasts

Gymnastics training facilities contain large volumes of polyurethane foam, a material that often contains additive flame retardants such as PentaBDE. While investigations of human exposure to flame retardants have focused on the general population, potentially higher than background exposures may occur in gymnasts and certain occupational groups. Our objectives were to compare PentaBDE body burden among gymnasts to the general United States population and characterize flame retardants levels in gym equipment, air, and dust. We recruited 11 collegiate female gymnasts (ages 18-22) from one gym in the eastern United States. The geometric mean (GM) concentration of BDE-153 in gymnast sera (32.5 ng/g lipid) was 4-6.5 times higher than in the general United States population groups. Median concentrations of PentaBDE, TBB, and TBPH in paired handwipe samples were 2-3 times higher after practice compared to before, indicating the gymnasts contacted these flame retardants during practice. GM concentrations of PentaBDE, TBB, and TBPH were 1-3 orders of magnitude higher in gym air and dust than in residences. Our findings suggest that these collegiate gymnasts experienced higher exposures to PentaBDE flame retardants compared to the general United States population and that gymnasts may also have increased exposure to other additive flame retardants used in polyurethane foam such as TBB and TBPH.

The Effect of Education on Hydration Status of Female Collegiate Gymnasts at Southern Utah University

The Effect of Education on Hydration Status of Female Collegiate Gymnasts at Southern Utah University

Anterior Limbus Vertebra and Intervertebral Disk Degeneration in Japanese Collegiate Gymnasts.

Background:Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies have shown that gymnasts have a high prevalence of radiological abnormalities, such as intervertebral disk degeneration (IDD) and anterior limbus vertebra (ALV). These 2 abnormalities may coexist at the same spinal level. However, the relationship between IDD and ALV remains unclear.Hypothesis:A significant relationship exists between IDD and ALV in Japanese collegiate gymnasts.Study Design:Case-control study.Methods:A total of 104 Japanese collegiate gymnasts (70 men and 34 women; age, 19.7 ± 1.0 years) with 11.8 ± 3.6 years of sporting experience participated. T1- and T2-weighted MRIs were used to evaluate ALV and IDD.Results:The prevalence among the gymnasts of IDD and ALV was 40.4% (42/104) and 20.2% (21/104), respectively. The prevalence of IDD was significantly higher in gymnasts with ALV than those without ALV, as determined using the chi-square test. Logistic regression analysis demonstrated a significant association between IDD and ALV (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 6.60; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.14-20.35). IDD was further grouped by whether it was present in the upper lumbar region (L1-2, L2-3, and L3-4 disks) or in the lower lumbar region (L4-5 and L5-S1 disks). Upper IDD had a greater association with ALV (adjusted OR, 33.17; 95% CI, 7.09-155.25) than did lower IDD (adjusted OR, 6.71; 95% CI, 1.57-28.73).Conclusion:In Japanese collegiate gymnasts, ALV is a predictor of IDD, especially in the upper lumbar region.Clinical Relevance:Information regarding ALV is important to prevent IDD in Japanese collegiate gymnasts.

Radiological Abnormalities and Low Back Pain in Gymnasts

Several studies have shown a higher prevalence of radiological abnormalities among gymnasts. However, the types of radiological abnormalities associated with low back pain (LBP) have not been clarified. The hypothesis was that significant relationships between radiological abnormalities and LBP may be revealed by discriminating between the types of MRI abnormalities while considering confounding factors. The subjects were 104 Japanese collegiate gymnasts (men, 70; women, 34). The presence of LBP was evaluated using the questionnaire developed by Osaka City University (OCU Test). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) abnormalities were evaluated using T1- and T2-weighted MRI. The prevalence of more than 1 MRI abnormality in gymnasts was 47.1% (49/104). The chi-square test showed that the incidence of lumbar disc degeneration (LDDG) and limbus vertebra was significantly greater in gymnasts with LBP than in gymnasts without LBP. By using logistic regression analysis to analyze the concomitant environmental variables, only LDDG (odds ratio, 2.70; 95% confidence interval, 1.10-6.66) was selected as a statistically significant variable accounting for LBP. In conclusion, LDDG is a predictor for LBP in Japanese collegiate gymnasts.

COL11A1 Gene is Associated with Limbus Vertebra in Gymnasts

Several studies have shown higher frequencies of radiological abnormalities among gymnasts. Recently, the gene encoding the α1 chain of type XI collagen, (COL11A1) (rs 1676486), was associated with lumbar disc herniation in the Japanese population. We hypothesized that there was a significant relationship between abnormal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings of the lumbar spine and the COL11A1 4603C/T gene polymorphism in collegiate gymnasts. Our study participants included 103 Japanese collegiate gymnasts (70 men and 33 women). Radiological abnormalities were evaluated using T1- and T2-weighted MRI. Genotyping for COL11A1 was performed for all the participants. By using logistic regression analysis, we observed significant associations between limbus vertebra and age (adjusted odds ratio=0.51, 95% confidence interval: 0.27-0.96), sporting experience (adjusted odds ratio=1.49, 95% confidence interval: 1.14-1.94), and a TT genotype (adjusted odds ratio=7.83, 95% confidence interval: 1.33-46.03). We conclude that a TT genotype of COL11A1 polymorphism may be a significant risk factor for limbus vertebra in Japanese collegiate gymnasts.

Prevalence of Disordered Eating and Pathogenic Weight Control Behaviors Among NCAA Division I Female Collegiate Gymnasts and Swimmers

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image sizeKey words: eating disordersfemale athletes Additional informationNotes on contributorsTrent A. PetriePlease address correspondence for this article to Trent A. Petrie, Department of Psychology, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle #311280, Denton, TX 76203-5017

Prevalence of Disordered Eating and Pathogenic Weight Control Behaviors Among NCAA Division I Female Collegiate Gymnasts and Swimmers

Prevalence of Disordered Eating and Pathogenic Weight Control Behaviors Among NCAA Division I Female Collegiate Gymnasts and Swimmers

Psychosocial Correlates of Bulimic Symptoms Among NCAA Division-I Female Collegiate Gymnasts and Swimmers/Divers

In this study, we tested Petrie and Greenleaf's (2007) model of bulimic symptoms in two independent samples of female collegiate swimmers/divers and gymnasts. Structural equation modeling revealed support for the model, although it also suggested additional pathways. Specifically, general societal pressures regarding weight and body were related to the internalization of those ideals and, subsequently, to increases in body dissatisfaction. Pressures from the sport environment regarding weight and appearance were associated with more body dissatisfaction and more restrictive eating. Body dissatisfaction was related to more feelings of sadness, anger, and fear among the athletes. Negative affect, body dissatisfaction, and dietary restraint were related directly to bulimic symptoms, accounting for 55-58% of its variance. These results suggest that general sociocultural pressures are influential, but weight and appearance pressures in the sport environment may be even more pervasive and negative for female athletes.

A Phenomenological Investigation of Gymnasts’ Lived Experience of Imagery

The authors would like to extend their gratitude to the ten gymnasts participating in this study. Their willingness to share their time and experiences made this research project possible.Phenomenological interviews were conducted with ten female collegiate gymnasts (M age = 22.2; SD = 1.68 yr) to determine their lived experience of sport imagery. Qualitative analysis of the interview data revealed a total of 693 meaning units and produced a final thematic structure consisting of five major dimensions: preparing for movement; mentally preparing; feeling the skill; controlling perspective/speed/effort; and time and place. Among the results not reported in previous studies were athletes’ manipulations of imagery speed for various purposes, the incorporation of abbreviated body movements during imagery to accentuate the feel of the action, correcting inadvertent mistakes in an imaged performance, and the imaging of upcoming segments of a serial skill during execution. The findings extend previous sport imagery research and provide suggestions for sport psychology consultants working with elite gymnasts.

A Comparison of Forearm Bone Mineral Density Among Collegiate Gymnasts, Distance Runners, and Non-Athletes

A Comparison of Forearm Bone Mineral Density Among Collegiate Gymnasts, Distance Runners, and Non-Athletes

Hydration, nutrition, and energy expenditure of female collegiate gymnasts at Southern Utah University

Good nutrition and hydration of athletes is vital to injury prevention, performance, and physical health. The purpose of this study was to examine hydration, energy expenditure, and nutritional status of collegiate female gymnasts. Fifteen gymnasts, mean age 19.3 ± 1.1 years, participated. Seven‐day food records were collected. Urine specific gravity (USG) was determined for five practices and one meet. Body Media® armbands were used to measure caloric needs. The armband continuously monitored movement, heat flow, skin temperature, ambient temperature, and galvanic skin response. Armband data revealed that on average gymnasts burned 613.4 more calories on practice days compared to days with no scheduled practices. Gymnasts had a low caloric intake (66% of recommended), which resulted in low macronutrient and micronutrient consumption. Diet analysis indicated that nutrients of concern were water, vitamin D, vitamin E, omega‐3 fatty acids, magnesium, and potassium. Paired t‐test revealed a significant difference (p&lt; 0.001) in the mean USGs before and after practices as well as the meet. USG indicated athletes came to practices minimally dehydrated and left significantly dehydrated. This population may benefit from nutrition education and implementation of strategies to help them meet their nutrient recommendations.