College Swimmers Research Articles

Effects of Inspiratory Muscles Training on the Development of Respiratory Function in University Students: A Case Study of Guangzhou Sport University

Background and Aim: The objective of this research was to develop Inspiratory Muscle Training for Respiratory Function in University Students. Materials and Methods: This research was experimental research. From the initial 48 third-year college students recruited at Guangzhou Sport University, we excluded 8 students who also participated in other sports programs or had school absences due to personal reasons, leaving the remaining 40 students as experimental subjects. They had just learned Four kinds of swimming in their second year of college and began the early stages of formal swimming training. Using the simple randomization method, 40 male college students were divided into two groups, one experimental group and one control group with 20 students in each group. The experimental group participated in the swimming training three times a week and designed the respiratory control training. The control group participated in swimming training three times a week, and the whole training time was 6 weeks. The specific approach is as follows: before the grouping, the 50-meter freestyle test was conducted, ranked according to the swimming result from the highest to the highest, and the balance was allocated to the experimental group and the control group. This study investigated the effects of inspiratory muscle training on respiratory function in college swimmers from four aspects: (1) VC (vital capacity), (2) MIP (maximum inspiratory pressure), (3) MIF (maximum inspiratory flow), and (4) MIC (maximum inspiratory capacity). In this research, T-test and ANOVA were used to compare and analyze the data. The statistical significance level was 0.05. Result: After 6 weeks of continuous inspiratory muscle training in swimmers, regarding the index of vital capacity (VC), there was no significant change in the control group. However, there was a significant increase in the experimental group (p=0.01); regarding the three indicators of maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP), maximum inspiratory flow (MIF), and maximum inspiratory capacity (MIC): both the experimental group and the control group showed an improvement, but the experimental group showed a greater improvement, and the enhancement appeared earlier. Conclusion: Inspiratory muscle training is beneficial to the development of respiratory function in university students.

Retraction: Effects of "mindfulness acceptance insight commitment" training on flow state and mental health of college swimmers: a randomized controlled experimental study.

[This retracts the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.799103.].

Social Comparison, Social Indispensability, or Both? On the Psychological Mechanisms Underlying Effort Gains in Swimming Relays.

Members of swimming relays often show effort gains in relays (i.e.,more effort and faster swimming times in the relay vs. the individual competition). The weakest relay members typically exhibit the most pronounced effort gains. However, the underlying psychological processes are unclear. Prior research suggests social comparisons with stronger fellow relay members, perceived social indispensability, or a combination of both processes as plausible mediators. In Study 1, using linear mixed model and regression analyses on N = 239 observations from 222 elite U.S. college swimmers, we found empirical support only for the social indispensability hypothesis. Study 2, a survey among N = 46 German national team swimmers, substantiated the results, because the athletes most often mentioned processes related to social indispensability as motivating them. Our findings offer theoretical conclusions for expectancy × value models on team member effort expenditure and practical implications for coaching and selecting the weakest members for swimming relays.

A Different View of Collegiate Swimming. Under the Umbrella of Title IX: Voices of Black Womxn Collegiate Swimmers at HBCUs

Abstract: Research completed by Norwood (2010), Quash (2018), and Waller and Nor-wood (2009) examined the experiences of Black Womxn swimmers. These authors identified swimming participation’s constraints and its impact on Black Womxn in collegiate and/or recreational settings. Minimal research encompasses a summation of the generational and institutional experiences of Black Womxn Collegiate Swimmers from Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) which no longer exist. Despite the success and experiences of Black Collegiate Swimmers and Olympians Lia Neal and Simone Manuel (both from Stanford University), and Natalie Hinds (from the University of Florida) who earned the top three places in the monumental 2015 Division I Swimming and Diving Championships (“ Three college swimmers make history at ncaa championship ,” 2015) from predominantly white institutions, little is known about one’s introduction to the sport, familial support, and the team culture as experienced by a Black Womxn swimmer and more so from an HBCU swimmer. This study was an opportunity to recognize the experiences of self-identified Black Womxn Collegiate Swimmers from Historically Black Colleges and Universities and the closure of these competitive swim programs. Noting the importance of race, gender, and class in a sport that is dominated by white cisgender men and womxn, this narrative inquiry study aims to provide a voice for Black Womxn who swam for athletic programs that Title IX, as a federal law, were unable to protect.

Case Studies in Physiology: Male to female transgender swimmer in college athletics.

There is current scientific and legal controversy about sports competition eligibility regulations for transgender athletes. In this case study, we quantified performances by an elite, transgender woman (male sex, female gender identity) college swimmer who competed in both the men's and women's National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) categories. We also contextualized her performances with respect to world-record performances and contemporary elite college swimmers. These data demonstrate that the declines in freestyle swimming performances of a transgender woman after about 2 yr of reported feminizing gender-affirming hormone treatment (0.5% for the 100 to 7.3% for the 1,650 yard distance) are smaller than the observed sex-related differences in performance of top 200 world record performances in metric distances of similar durations (11.4% for the 100 m to 9.3% for the 1,500 m distance). Despite slower performances, the transgender woman swimmer experienced improvements in performance for each freestyle event (100 to 1,650 yards) relative to sex-specific NCAA rankings, including producing the best swimming time in the NCAA for the 500-yard distance (65th in the men's category in 2018-2019 to 1st in the women's, 2022). Similarly, NCAA-ranked male swimmers had no improvements in rank in the men's category during the same time frame. Our findings suggest that the performance times of the transgender woman swimmer in the women's NCAA category were outliers for each event distance and suggest that the transgender woman swimmer had superior performances relative to rank-matched swimmers. Our analysis may be useful as a framework for regulators considering participation guidelines, which promote fair competition for all athletes-irrespective of gender identity.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This case study, longitudinal analysis of freestyle swimming performances before and after 2 yr of feminizing gender-affirming hormone therapy of an elite transgender woman (male sex, female gender identity), demonstrates superior performance relative to rank-matched female swimmers and a lower performance gap than previously observed between elite male and female swimmers.

Is Real-Time Poolside Assessment of Upper Limb Errors in Front Crawl Swimming Technique Reliable and Equivalent to Video Analysis?

Swimming technique is widely believed to influence performance, but this relationship has rarely been tested objectively using a real-time poolside assessment. To determine the (1)test-retest reliability, interrater reliability, and criterion validity (live vs video) of real-time poolside assessment of upper limb (UL) errors in front crawl (FC) swimming technique and (2)the relationship between UL errors and FC swimming performance. Cross-sectional reliability, validity, and correlational study. Swim team practice at a college natatorium. Thirty-nine Division III college swimmers (21 women and 18 men, age = 19 [1]y, swimming experience = 11 [3]y). Seven UL errors in FC swimming technique, many of which involved unnecessary vertical and mediolateral motions, were assessed in real time from outside the pool during swim practice. Test-retest reliability, interrater reliability, and criterion validity were calculated using Cohen kappa (κ) and weighted kappa (κw). Swimming performance was determined by the participants' best FC events relative to the conference records. The correlation between total UL errors and FC swimming performance was assessed with Pearson r. Cohen κ and κw were moderate for the majority of errors, with the following ranges: 0.46 to 0.90 (test-retest), -0.01 to 1.00 (interrater), and 0.36 to 0.66 (criterion validity). There was a significant correlation between total UL errors and FC swimming performance: r(24) = -.59 (P = .001, R2 = .35). Reliability and validity were moderate for the majority of errors. The fewer UL errors swimmers made while practicing FC, the faster their best FC race times tended to be relative to the conference record. UL errors in FC swimming technique explained 35% of the variance in performance.

CORRELAÇÃO ENTRE QUALIDADE MENTAL E INTENSIDADE DE TREINAMENTO DE NADADORES UNIVERSITÁRIOS

ABSTRACT Introduction: We should pay attention to physical and psychological training still in the growth phase of athletes to ensure a better overall performance quality. Psychological training can be an effective tool to improve the technical level and skills of swimming. Objective: This paper discusses the relationship between mental health education and training intensity in college swimmers. Methods: The mental health of professional swimmers in college sports is explored with study subjects undergoing a 10-week training trial. The comparison of clinical effects between various psychological training modalities and swimmers’ self-management is analyzed. In a second step, this paper performs statistics and analysis on the questionnaire and experimental data. Results: The exercise ability of the control group was significantly improved after relaxation training, tension training, and thought control training (P<0.05). The results showed that the learning effect of the experimental group was significantly better than that of the control group (P<0.05). Conclusion: Psychological training and self-regulation in training have a good effect on improving the mental quality of competitive sports players. This approach improves athletes’ performance more effectively than other approaches. The psychological self-regulation training method is one that swimming coaches should pay attention to and advocate vigorously. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment outcomes.

Effects of "Mindfulness Acceptance Insight Commitment" Training on Flow State and Mental Health of College Swimmers: A Randomized Controlled Experimental Study.

This research explores the intervention effect of the mindfulness acceptance insight commitment (MAIC) training program on the mindfulness level, flow state, and mental health of college swimmers. A sample of 47 college swimmers from a regular university was recruited and randomly divided into two groups before the intervention. Independent variables between groups are psychological training mode (MAIC training/no training), and the independent variable within group was time (pre-test, post-test, and continuity test). The dependent variables are mindfulness level, flow state, and mental health (anxiety, depression, training, and competition satisfaction). Results show that after the intervention of MAIC training, the mindfulness level of athletes’ flow state has been significantly improved, whereas anxiety and depression significantly decreased. In addition, the satisfaction with training and competition significantly improved. In the continuous stage after the intervention, the mindfulness level, flow state, and mental health of athletes are still significantly higher than those in the pre-test. The comparison of the post-test and continuity test show no significant differences in the mindfulness level, flow state, depression, and training and competition satisfaction of athletes. Still, the anxiety level shows an upward trend with a significant difference. This study demonstrates that the MAIC mindfulness training program can significantly improve the mindfulness level, flow state, anxiety, depression, and training and competition satisfaction of college swimmers with a good continuity effect. Thus, the athletes’ sports experience can be improved, and good psychological benefits can be attained.

Swimming Through Ambivalence: The Paradox of Vigilant Coping in Female College Athletes

Three decades of research into disordered eating in sports have revealed contradictory results, with athletes considered both at risk but also protected from eating problems. To contribute insight into the complexities of existing literature, this study examines how female college swimmers in the US experience food and their bodies in athletic, non-athletic, and digital media contexts. Drawing on 16 in- depth interviews, this study finds that these athletes experience contradictory ideals, especially in the domains of health and online self- presentation. When faced with such tensions, they often seek resolution through heightened discipline and attention towards controlling the body, a phenomenon that I call vigilant coping. While vigilant coping can provide some satisfaction and respite, it often exacerbates confusion and reproduces anxieties. As a result, a predominant strategy for resolving ambivalence becomes a source of additional distress around food and body. The women in this study show how athletic contexts contribute to the paradox of vigilant coping but also reveal creative ways of coping that go beyond vigilance. These findings are particularly important given the low success of disordered eating treatments and urgency towards improving preventative efforts.

Differences in strength and landing biomechanics between female jumpers and swimmers

BACKGROUND: It remains unclear if plyometric training as a single component could improve landing mechanics that are potentially associated with lower risk of ACL injury in the long term OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of experience undertaking plyometrics on landing biomechanics in female athletes. METHODS: Non-jumpers with little experience in plyometric training (12 female college swimmers) and jumpers with five years of experience in plyometric training (12 female college long jumpers and high jumpers) were recruited to participate in two testing sessions: an isokinetic muscle force test for the dominant leg at 120∘/s and a 40-cm drop landing test. An independent t test was applied to detect any significant effects between cohorts for selected muscle force, kinematic, kinetic, and electromyography variables. RESULTS: While female jumpers exhibited greater quadriceps eccentric strength (P= 0.013) and hamstring concentric strength (P= 0.023) during isokinetic testing than female swimmers, no significant differences were observed in kinematics, kinetics, and muscle activities during both drop landing and drop jumping. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that the female jumpers did not present any training-induced modification in landing mechanics regarding reducing injury risks compared with the swimmers. The current study revealed that plyometric training as a single component may not guarantee the development of low-risk landing mechanics for young female athletes.

Effect of time-of-day on freestyle flip turn performance: influence on 50 m event

ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to examine the daytime effects on flip turn performance [i.e., 3 m round trip time (3mRTT) as measure of turning performance] as well as global performance during a 50 m freestyle at maximal speed. Twelve college swimmers performed 3 × 50 m freestyle at maximum speed with a flip turn and glide in a 25 m pool in two experimental trials, one in the morning (08:00 h) and one in the evening (18:00 h). Kinematic and dynamic parameters of flip turn performance are analyzed using one underwater camera and a force platform recording wall force peak and time contact. Results showed that oral temperature is significantly higher (p < 0.001) in the evening than in the morning. Also, this study reported that daily variations have been observed for both, changes in swim performance and changes in (3mRTT). Thus, kinematic and dynamic flip turn variables associated with an improvement of freestyle swim performance. It is concluded that maximal swimming trials are performed better in the evening than in the morning, and that this might be linked to variations in oral temperature; also, might be explained by better flip turn performance at this time.

Is Better Freestyle Swimming Technique Associated With Better Performance?

Swimming technique is widely believed to influence performance, but few studies have quantified this relationship using an objective, pool-side technique assessment. PURPOSE: To determine the relationship between freestyle swimming technique and swimming performance using a poolside technique assessment. METHODS: Freestyle swimming was assessed for technique errors during normal practice near the beginning of the season in 27 Division III college swimmers (16 females, 19±1 years, 1.75±0.11 m, 71.0±10.4 kg). Seven freestyle swimming techniques were considered errors: (1) hand crossing the midline of the body at entry, (2) straight-arm recovery, (3) hand entering with the thumb first, (4) inadequate or excessive shoulder roll, (5) hand crossing the midline of the body during the underwater pull-through, (6) elbow dropping during the pull-through, and (7) excessive neck flexion/extension. Six of the errors were assessed bilaterally, resulting in a maximum possible score of 13 errors. Swimming performance was determined by each participant’s best freestyle event from the end-of-season meet as a percentage of the conference record. The correlation between errors and performance was assessed with Pearson’s r. One participant was removed due to a late-season injury that affected their ability to train and compete. RESULTS: Participants averaged 2.7±1.7 errors (range: 0-5). Their performance averaged 94±3% of the conference record (range: 87-99%). There was a significant negative correlation of moderate strength between number of errors and performance: r = -0.59, p = 0.01, R2= 0.35 (Figure). Fewer errors corresponded with better performance. CONCLUSION: The fewer freestyle technique errors a swimmer made, the faster their best freestyle race time was as a percentage of the conference record. Technique explained 35% of the variance in performance. This study is one of the first to demonstrate this relationship using objective, pool-side assessment criteria.

Effects of Seasonal Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Strength, Power, and Body Composition in College Swimmers.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of fall season vitamin D3 supplementation on strength/power, body composition, and anabolic hormones in swimmers with optimal vitamin D status at summer's end. Male and female National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I swimmers (N = 19) with optimal 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] randomly received 5,000IU of vitamin D3 (VITD) or placebo (PLA) daily for 12 weeks while participating in swimming and strength and conditioning training (August-November). Before and after the intervention, the participants underwent blood sampling for analysis of serum 25(OH)D, parathyroid hormone, total testosterone, free testosterone, sex hormone-binding globulin, and insulin-like growth factor 1, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and strength/power testing (bench press, squat, dead lift, standing broad jump, vertical jump, and dips and pull-ups). Sex was used as a covariate for analyses. The 25(OH)D was decreased by 44% in PLA (p < .05) and increased by 8% in VITD over the 12 weeks. Fat-free mass increased in VITD (56.4-59.1kg; p < .05), but not PLA (59.4-59.7kg; p < .01). Significant Group × Time interaction effects were observed for dead lift (F = 21.577, p < .01) and vertical jump (F = 11.219, p < .01), but no other strength/power tests. Total testosterone decreased similarly in both groups, but free testosterone decreased and sex hormone-binding globulin increased only in PLA (p < .01). There were no group differences or changes in insulin-like growth factor 1 with the intervention. The findings suggest that vitamin D supplementation is an efficacious strategy to maintain 25(OH)D during the fall season training and to enhance some aspects of strength/power and fat-free mass in swimmers. Further research on the relationship between vitamin D and anabolic hormones is needed.

Greater Lumbar Extension During Dolphin Kick and Psoas Major Tightness in Swimmers With Low Back Pain.

In competitive swimming, many swimmers experience low back pain (LBP). Lumbar hyperextension may cause LBP, and tight hip-flexor muscle may cause lumbar extension during swimming. The purpose of this study was to clarify the features of the elastic moduli of the muscles and the lumbar extension when swimmers with LBP perform a dolphin kick (DK). Cross-sectional study. Single center. Eleven male college swimmers were enrolled as the LBP group (who have LBP when swimming and during a lumbar extension), and 21 male college swimmers were recruited as the control group (no LBP). The elastic moduli of the psoas major, iliacus, teres major, latissimus dorsi, pectoralis major, and pectoralis minor were measured through ultrasonic shear wave elastography. The lumbar and hip extension angles during a DK were measured using a video camera. The passive hip extension and shoulder-flexion range of motion (ROM) were measured using a goniometer. Muscle elastic moduli and lumbar extension angles during DK. The characteristics, muscle elastic moduli, DK motion, and ROM were compared between the 2 groups. LBP group demonstrated significantly higher elastic modulus of the psoas major and lower modulus of pectoralis minor compared with the control group. Also, LBP group showed greater lumbar extension during a DK and less hip extension ROM than the control group. The higher elastic modulus of the psoas major and greater lumbar extension during a DK may be related to the LBP in swimmers.

Examining the link between thoracic rotation and scapular dyskinesis and shoulder pain amongst college swimmers

ObjectivesIn National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I swimmers, we examined the differences in thoracic spine rotation in swimmers with and without scapular dyskinesis and the relationship between thoracic spine rotation and shoulder pain/dysfunction according to the Kerlan-Jobe Orthopaedic Clinic (KJOC) score. DesignCross-sectional. SettingLaboratory-based. Participants34 NCAA Division I swimmers (13 males, 21 females). Main outcome measuresSelf-reported upper extremity function and pain assessed with the KJOC questionnaire, thoracic spine range of motion, presence of scapular dyskinesis. ResultsDyskinesis was present in 15 of 34 (44%) subjects. Thoracic rotation averaged 136.7° and KJOC averaged 87.7 with no differences between swimmers with or without dyskinesis. We observed no correlation between KJOC-identified shoulder pain/dysfunction and thoracic rotation. ConclusionsIn our cohort of NCAA Division 1 swimmers, no differences were found between swimmers with or without scapular dyskinesis and extent of thoracic rotation. We found no correlation between thoracic rotation and the amount of self-reported pain and dysfunction experienced in the upper extremity. The presence of scapular dyskinesis in nearly half of our subjects indicates that swimmers need to be assessed for this abnormality. If observed, rehabilitation should address the dyskinesis and improve thoracic rotation in an attempt to alleviate further upper extremity pain and dysfunction.

Does ankle joint flexibility affect underwater kicking efficiency and three-dimensional kinematics?

ABSTRACT Ankle flexibility is critical to obtain a high swimming velocity in undulatory underwater swimming (UUS). The present study investigated the Froude (propelling) efficiency and three-dimensional (3D) kinematics of human UUS following the extrinsic restriction of the ankle by tape application. In Experiment 1, swimmers (9 male and 8 female college swimmers) performed UUS trials involving normal swimming (Normal) and swimming with tape application at the ankle (Tape). Kicking frequency was controlled in both settings. UUS kinematics were obtained with a two-dimensional motion analysis. Swimming velocity significantly decreased during swimming with tape application compared with that during normal swimming (Normal, 1.33 m·s−1; Tape, 1.26 m·s−1, p < 0.05). The Froude efficiency was not affected (Normal, 0.77; Tape, 0.76), and ankle plantar angle did not decrease during swimming (Normal, 159.02°; Tape, 160.38°). In Experiment 2, lower limb rotations of a male swimmer were analysed using 3D motion analysis under the same conditions as Experiment 1. An insufficient forefoot rotation was observed during downstroke kicks (the phase of the highest acceleration to forward direction). These findings suggest that UUS velocity is affected by the mobility of end effector.

The Relationship between Front Crawl Swimming Performance and Strength Variables in College Swimmers

The Relationship between Front Crawl Swimming Performance and Strength Variables in College Swimmers

Vitamin D Supplementation is Associated with Attenuated Seasonal 25-OH-D Drop and Increased Strength in Collegiate Swimmers

Upon completion, participant will be able to: Describe the role of season and 5000 IU vitamin D supplementation on blood vitamin D levels in college swimmers.

Nutrition and Physiological Recovery in Smith College Swimmers

Nutrition and Physiological Recovery in Smith College Swimmers

Controlled Frequency Breathing Reduces Inspiratory Muscle Fatigue.

Burtch, AR, Ogle, BT, Sims, PA, Harms, CA, Symons, TB, Folz, RJ, and Zavorsky, GS. Controlled frequency breathing reduces inspiratory muscle fatigue. J Strength Cond Res 31(5): 1273-1281, 2017-Controlled frequency breathing (CFB) is a common swim training modality involving holding one's breath for approximately 7-10 strokes before taking another breath. We sought to examine the effects of CFB training on reducing respiratory muscle fatigue. Competitive college swimmers were randomly divided into either the CFB group that breathed every 7-10 strokes or a control group that breathed every 3-4 strokes. Twenty swimmers completed the study. The training intervention included 5-6 weeks (16 sessions) of 12 × 50-m repetitions with breathing 8-10 breaths per 50-m (control group) or 2-3 breaths per 50-m (CFB group). Inspiratory muscle fatigue was defined as the decrease in maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) between rest and 46 seconds after a 200-yard freestyle swimming race (115 seconds [SD 7]). Aerobic capacity, pulmonary diffusing capacity, and running economy were also measured pre- and posttraining. Pooled results demonstrated a 12% decrease in MIP at 46 seconds post-race (-15 [SD 14] cm H2O, effect size = -0.48, p < 0.01). After 4 weeks of training, only the CFB group prevented a decline in MIP values before to 46 seconds after race (-2 [13] cm H2O, p > 0.05). However, swimming performance, aerobic capacity, pulmonary diffusing capacity, and running economy did not improve (p > 0.05) posttraining in either group. In conclusion, CFB training appears to prevent inspiratory muscle fatigue; yet, no difference was found in performance outcomes.