College Student Athletes Research Articles

Cash Rules Everything Around Me: The Expansion of NCAA Name, Image, and Likeness Policy Among the States

Name, image, and likeness (NIL) policies have expanded rapidly in the United States in the past three years. Since the state of California passed a law allowing college student athletes to profit off their NIL, 41 states have either adopted or proposed similar legislation. Politics, the presence of high-level football programs, revenue, and geography have shaped this rapid expansion that has significant effects on higher education administration. Using survival analysis, this article explains the expansion of NIL policy and finds the key factors leading to its rapid diffusion. We find that the significant drivers of NIL adoption include high level NCAA football and the political motives of the state adopting that contributes to civic pride. The major findings suggest that this focus on football and its connection to civic pride and resulting political decisions creates opportunities and challenges for higher education.

Development, feasibility, and acceptability of SPoRT: a dating violence and sexual risk prevention intervention for college student-athletes

BackgroundStudent-athletes are one subgroup of college students in the USA at risk for dating violence and sexual risk behaviors. Despite this, research on student-athletes’ dating behaviors is limited; existing research pertains primarily to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I athletes and focuses on male student-athletes as perpetrators of dating and sexual violence. While some existing programs aim to reduce dating violence and promote healthy relationships, these programs are education based, and not tailored to the specific strengths and challenges of student-athletes. We therefore designed Supporting Prevention in Relationships for Teams (SPoRT), a novel, four-session prevention intervention for Division III student-athletes of all genders to reduce dating violence and sexual risk behavior by targeting knowledge and skills identified in pilot research, incorporating psychoeducation with techniques from cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness, bystander intervention, and normative feedback.MethodsThis study represents stage 1 of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Stage Model for Behavioral Intervention Development, evaluating the feasibility and acceptability of SPoRT. We describe the development, content, and proposed delivery methods for SPoRT and evaluated the feasibility and acceptability of the program using a mixed-methods approach. Thirty college student-athletes (12 men, 18 women) completed questionnaires and participated in focus groups to provide feedback on the program’s length, timing, group size and dynamics, content, and suggestions for making the SPoRT prevention intervention more feasible and acceptable.ResultsOur recruitment procedures were successful, and participants rated the program as feasible in terms of delivery methods and logistics. Participants liked that SPoRT was developed based on pilot data collected from student-athletes, brief, and skills based and tailored to athletic team needs. SPoRT was perceived as appropriate and relevant to student-athlete needs in terms of dating violence and sexual risk prevention knowledge and skills. Most participants (63%) rated the program as “excellent” and said they would recommend it to others.ConclusionsWe found SPoRT to be both feasible and acceptable in terms of content and delivery. Suggested modifications will be incorporated into the SPoRT healthy relationships prevention intervention to be tested in an NIH Stage 1 efficacy trial.

Raibuliavimas (making ripples): student-athletes action safe sport in Lithuania

ABSTRACT Athlete voice is fundamental to good governance; however, sports organisations have been slow to involve young people in safe sport initiatives. In Lithuania, the location of this study, athlete welfare issues are rarely discussed, and the development of a safe sport environment is new to the policy agenda. This project aimed to empower a cohort of student-athletes to promote good practice and safe sport in Lithuania. A secondary aim was to understand the content areas that young athletes prioritised in promoting safe sport. 17 Lithuanian university student-athletes worked in small groups to identify a safe sport issue that was relevant in their country and created awareness-raising poster campaigns to start conversations about it. Focus group interviews were conducted with participants who highlighted the need to challenge ‘taken-for-granted’ ideas about athlete welfare and the importance of involving young athletes in advancing the welfare and safe sport agendas.

The Effect of Neuroticism on Autonomic Cardiac Responses Caused by Mental Stress in University Student-Athletes

The present study investigated whether neuroticism might have predictive ability for athletes' Heart Rate Variability (HRV) in response to mental stress, a noninvasive measurement of the interaction between the autonomic nervous and cardiovascular systems. The sample included 49 university student-athletes aged 19 to 24. Participants first completed items from the Five Factor Personality Inventory concerning neuroticism to measure neuroticism. Then, their resting HRV’s were measured for four minutes. Afterward, participants took a modified version of the Stroop word-color task as the mental stressor within four minutes while their HRV responses were recorded. Results indicated a significant increase in terms of Heart Rate (HR) (z= 3.162, p= .002), Root Mean Square of the Successive (RMSSD) (z= 2.973, p= .003), Low Frequency (LF) (z= 3.027, p= .002), and High Frequency (HF) (z= 3.404, p= .001) from baseline to stressor condition in the low neuroticism group. On the other hand, no significant increase was observed in RMSSD (z= 1.314, p= .189) and LF (z= 1.173, p= .241) from baseline to stressor condition in the high neuroticism group. Results also revealed a significant increase in HR (z= 2.543, p= .011) and HF (z= 2.229, p= .026) from baseline to stressor condition in the high neuroticism group. The results observed in the present study revealed that athletes' responses to mental stress might vary due to personality traits, especially neuroticism. In conclusion, researchers and practitioners aiming to regulate athletes' psychophysiological responses to stress should consider personality traits such as neuroticism.

The indirect effect of emotional intelligence on student-athletes’ sport motivation through communication satisfaction

The purpose of the current study is to extend the research on the relationship between athletes’ emotional intelligence and sport motivation by focusing on the potential of athletes’ communication satisfaction with their coaches as a mediator in this context. The results of a cross-sectional survey with a sample of 165 South Korean college student-athletes support the hypotheses that student-athletes’ emotional intelligence predicts sport motivation and that communication satisfaction with their coaches mediates this relationship. Implications of the findings and limitations of the study are discussed.

大学生アスリートに対するキャリア移行支援に関する文献レビュー

This literature review aimed to investigate the literature on career support for university student-athletes to facilitate their career transitions and explore specific support components. National and international databases were searched using terms such as “student athlete,” “career,” and “intervention” and a final total of seven studies were selected. Robust data are not provided because of variations in theoretical background, study design, and outcomes. The content and effectiveness of support for student-athletes were described for each intervention period and support was categorized into six components: (1) Clarifying values and interests, (2) Identifying skills, strengths, and transferable skills acquired throughout their athletic career, (3) Providing or collecting information on work and occupations, (4) Expanding values and interests, and directing their attention to new areas, (5) Based on (1) to (4), considering links with the labor market and developing a career plan, and (6) Providing general support on career transitions. Stakeholders providing career support to university student-athletes should consider the six components presented in this review. In the future, data should be gathered to provide evidence-based practice, as well as examining the relationships between components and identifying which components provide more effective support.

The roles of readiness and dosage in predicting outcomes of a mindful sport performance enhancement intervention with U.S. college student-athletes

Research suggests that Mindfulness- and Acceptance-Based Interventions (MABIs) can impact sport performance and performance-relevant factors, though questions remain regarding when and for whom MABIs are effective. Specifically, inquiries into intervention engagement (i.e., dosage), potentially impacted by participant readiness, are needed. The present study utilized a non-randomized control group design with U.S. collegiate athletes to investigate MABI effects. Four teams from two universities in the Appalachian region (N = 57) engaged in Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) interventions during their offseason or pre-season training period. Participants were assessed on flow, psychological distress, mindfulness, emotion regulation difficulties, life satisfaction, readiness to practice mindfulness, attitudes toward sport psychology, and sport performance and enjoyment. Mindfulness dosage was measured weekly via self-report. Compared to controls, initial MSPE participants reported reductions in depressive symptoms and emotion regulation difficulties, and improvements in self-rated sport performance; at 6-week follow-up, initial MSPE participants reported significant increases in mindfulness and sport enjoyment, in addition to sustained reductions in emotion regulation difficulties. Pre-intervention readiness was not associated with changes across the intervention, though higher post-intervention readiness was associated with improvements in mindfulness, life satisfaction, and sport enjoyment. Higher post-intervention readiness was also associated with significantly more engagement (i.e., dosage), though no evidence indicated that dosage moderated the relationship between readiness and outcomes. These data suggest that post-intervention readiness may impact long-term engagement in mindfulness practice, and that pre-intervention readiness may not be an accurate indicator of engagement in or outcomes of an MABI with athletes.

Contributions of one hypothetical model of predictive relationships between psychological skills and emotional intelligence in university student-athletes: A cross-sectional study

Psychological skills are considered in sport psychology as indispensable capabilities to analyze the athlete's own vision of his or her own personality. These skills encompass self-confidence, positive and negative coping control, attentional control, visual-imaginative control, motivational level, and attitudinal control. The significance of this research lies in demonstrating the relationship established between each of the dimensions of emotional intelligence and the constituent skills of the personality. As such, this study aims to investigate the relationship between the seven factors related to psychological skills and emotional intelligence (attention, clarity, and emotional regulation). The sample comprises 163 university students pursuing degrees in Physical Activity and Sports Sciences, [70,9% (N = 117) men and 27.9% (N = 46) women] with a mean age of 20.33 years. As assessment instruments, we used two validated and standardized scales, the IPED and the TMMS-24. The main findings of this work allow us to affirm the existence of a relationship between the three dimensions of emotional intelligence and the control of both positive and negative coping, attentional control, visual-imaginative control, motivational level, and attitudinal control. In conclusion, this study underscores the necessity of cognitive and emotional training, in addition to physical training, to enhance these skills among both male and female athletes.

Investigating the emotional responses of selected university student-athletes playing through injury

Investigating the emotional responses of selected university student-athletes playing through injury

Concussion knowledge, attitudes and reporting intention amongst UK university student-athletes: Implications for institutions, coaches and future research

This article reports on a survey of concussion knowledge (CK), attitudes (CA) and reporting intention (CRI) amongst a multisport cohort of UK university student-athletes. A cross-sectional study design was used, with 217 student-athletes completing the Rosenbaum Concussion Knowledge and Attitudes Survey – Student Version. The findings show that CK is broadly aligned with previous study cohorts including research in North America, and that sport type had no effect on CK, CA and CRI. Whilst gender did not affect CA or CRI, males returned higher CK scores than females. The respondents’ concussion history did not affect CA. Paradoxically, respondents with a history of concussion had significantly greater CK scores yet were more likely to report an intention to continue playing with SRC symptoms. There are three key implications of these findings. The comparison of findings between males and females highlights the need for a more nuanced conceptualisation of safety and risk in relation to SRC. Second, the evidence suggests a strong need for UK universities to introduce bespoke education programmes and policies formalising the healthcare support and return to learn of students post-SRC. Third, awareness of the complex interplay between SRC knowledge, experience and behaviour will enable coaches across all sports to exercise caution when managing SRC amongst students. The article concludes by arguing that there is a need for further qualitative research to understand how concussion is experienced by UK university students and provided for and accommodated within UK universities.

Psychometric properties of the controlling coach behaviors scale for Japanese athletes

Two studies examined the validity and reliability of the Japanese version of the Controlling Coach Behaviors Scale (CCBS). The CCBS is a multidimensional self-report measure designed to evaluate sports coaches’ controlling interpersonal style from the perspective of self-determination theory (SDT). It comprises 15 items measuring the controlling use of rewards, negative conditional regard, intimidation, and excessive personal control on a seven-point Likert scale. The study 1 sample comprised 526 university student-athletes (Mage = 19.59 years, SD = ±0.94, 364 females) who completed the Japanese CCBS, which was developed through back-translation. Confirmatory factor analyses provided support for the tenability of the hypothesized factor structure of the Japanese CCBS (CFI=.927; NNFI=.909; RMSEA=.079). Moreover, the results supported the invariance of the scale across sex, sport types, and competitive levels. The subscale internal consistency and discriminant validity scores were all acceptable. Test-retest reliability evidence was obtained in Study 2 (N=108), suggesting a positive and significant intraclass correlation between the pre-test and the post-test CCBS (ICC range: .65–.87). These findings support the Japanese CCBS as a valid and reliable measure for use in research which will enhance our understanding of coaches’ controlling interpersonal styles in sports.

Grit and resilience as predictors of subjective well-being among university student-athletes

Grit and resilience as predictors of subjective well-being among university student-athletes

Prognostic Utility of Oculomotor Assessments in Determining Return-to-Learn Time in Acutely Concussed College Student-Athletes: A Pilot Study.

We sought to discover which oculomotor test (King-Devick [KD], near point of convergence [NPC], and accommodative facility [AF]) would best produce a prognostic model for an RTL time frame. An observational cohort design was used to longitudinally track division I and III student-athletes with concussion at a private university in New York State. Measurements included pre-RTL oculomotor testing (NPC, KD, and AF), along with daily text messages and phone calls. Participants were considered returned-to-learn once they had returned to baseline symptoms and had attended 2 days of classes. Our data promote KD score and class attendance as the best-fit prognostic model, with every second accrued on the KD test equating to 5.29 h of RTL time. Further, attending class throughout recovery, versus not, shortened RTL time by a mean 170.50 h, or 7.1 days. Five variables produced a significant attenuating association with concussion symptoms: time post-injury (p = 0.01); caffeine (p = 0.05); alcohol (p = 0.01); music (p = 0.01); and physical activity (p = 0.01). Three variables produced a significant worsening association with concussion symptoms: screen time (p = 0.05); music (p = 0.01); and class attendance (p = 0.01). The findings present a preliminary evidence-based model to prognosticate RTL time. To our knowledge, this is the second longitudinal study, and the first overall, to present objective data for guiding and prognosticating RTL, respectively. Correspondingly, these data should assist clinicians with objectively steering RTL in-clinic.

A Study on Negative Human Rights-Related Experiences of Female College Student Athletes in South Korea

The purpose of this study is to describe negative experiences related to human rights among female college student athletes in South Korea. For this purpose, qualitative research methods were used in this study. A total of 10 female college athletes participated in in-depth interviews, and the interview was conducted from March 1 to September 1, 2021. The main research results are as follows. First of all, most female college athletes who participated in the interview revealed that they had experienced physical or psychological harassment and abuse since elementary school. Second, female college student athletes experienced pressure with respect to their freedom and self-determination. It was found that life as an athlete is controlled by way of limiting the athletes’ right to self-determination including restriction on appearance, being excluded from various college activities and restrictions on socializing due to curfews. Third, participants demonstrated that the perpetrators were senior athletes and coach. Therefore, the study indicated that it is a fact of life at college level that female college athletes have experienced physical and verbal violence in sport. As such, human rights education and policies are needed to promote the human rights of female college students.

Student athlete well-being framework: an empirical examination of elite college student athletes.

The current study proposes a multidimensional student athlete well-being framework (SAWBF). The authors used 12 items to capture SAWBF comprised of four well-being dimensions (i.e., physical, hedonic, psychological, and social well-being). To empirically assess the reliability and validity of the framework, data from elite collegiate student athletes in Japan (N = 546) were procured. The results indicated sufficient convergent and discriminant validities of SAWBF. The authors also assessed predictive validity correlations of the framework by focusing on the oft-supported well-being outcome-organizational citizenship behavior, which were also found to be associated with SAWBF. The findings indicated the usefulness of SAWBF; and coaches and staff members can utilize the framework to multi-dimensionally understand well-being status of their student athletes, potentially boosting adaptive behaviors.

The relationship among career self-efficacy, negative emotion regulation expectancies, coping, and emotional experience of college student athletes

The relationship among career self-efficacy, negative emotion regulation expectancies, coping, and emotional experience of college student athletes

English

Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids (AAS) are synthetic forms of male sex hormone used by athletes as performance enhancement drugs. The study aimed to assess the characteristics of university student athletes that use AAS and other substances they use. It also assessed their knowledge of the health effects of AAS and their attitude towards use of AAS. Cross-sectional study was conducted among 157 student athletes from December, 2019 to January, 2020 at the Obafemi Awolowo University in Nigeria. Purposive sampling technique was used to select participants, while a self-reported questionnaire was used for data collection. Descriptive and inferential (Chi-square test and Logistic regression) statistical analysis were carried out. Findings showed that many users of AAS were males (85%), undergraduates (92%), involved in court sports (69%), and were from the Faculty of Arts (27%). A significant difference was found between types of sports and the use of AAS (x2 = 11.3, p = 0.05). The logistic regression model showed that females athletes have 56.9% lower odds of using AAS than the male athletes (OR = 0.431; 95% CI = 0.135-1.379) while those in the weightlifting sport will 7 times more likely to use AAS than those in the track and field event sport. Some of the athletes that used AAS also reported they consume Marijuana (35%), alcohol (27%), among other substances. No significant difference existed between the knowledge and attitude of those who used and did not use AAS (p > 0.05). The use of AAS among athletes in the Nigerian University is still a common practice and efforts should be intensified to reduce the incidence. Key words: Athletes, attitude, knowledge, anabolic androgenic steroids, use

Academic Identity, School Belongingness, Athletic Identity, and Athletic Expectations as Predictors of Academic and Athletic Time Use of College Athletes

Abstract Time demands are among the primary challenges for college student-athletes. They have to attend to classes and study halls as well as athletic-related activities such as training and competition. Both academic and athletic tasks require tremendous amount of time. Thus, it is argued that academics and athletics compete for the student-athletes’ attention. This research examined the impact of academic and athletic factors on student-athletes’ time use in academics and athletics using a subset of the 2015 United States National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) GOALS data. The relationships of academic identity, school belongingness, athletic identity, and athletic expectations with academic time use and athletic time spent were tested. Differences on the variables of interest according to race, gender, and division level were also investigated. Our findings revealed that academic identity is a positive predictor of academic time use and a negative predictor of athletic time use, while athletic identity is a positive predictor of athletic time spent. We also determined a contrasting influence of athletic expectations in time commitments. Lastly, we likewise found significant effects of race, gender, and division level on the academic and athletic engagements of college athletes. Our findings have implications on the development of programs for athletic department to optimize the academic and athletic experiences of college student-athletes.

The Unique Challenges and Demands of First-Generation College Students Who Participate in Division III Athletics

ABSTRACT This narrative research study examined the college transition stories of first-generation college students who participated in Division III athletics. Using Schlossberg’s Transition Theory as a framework, interviews were conducted with eight participants who actively participated in Division III athletics. Themes that emerged were: college as home and team as family, self-reliance, and overcoming imposter syndrome twice. Findings suggest opportunities for college administrators to help first-generation college student-athletes to feel a sense of belonging early in the college transition process, prioritize building a culture of support, and avoid assumptions of the competencies of incoming students to foster an environment of inclusion.

0641 Difficulty Maintaining Sleep and Sleep Quality mediate the Relationship between Sleep Disturbances and Depression

Abstract Introduction Prior epidemiological research has established the relationship between sleep disturbances and depression. Sleep disturbances are also common prodromal features of and comorbid with depression. However, limitations exist across past studies, including the frequent focus on “sleep disturbances” over well-defined facets of sleep, inattention to mediators, and a lack of focus on special populations. As such, there is a need to delineate the relationship between sleep disturbances and depression across specific facets of sleep, particularly in special populations. The current study examined multiple sleep facets as mediators of the relationship between general sleep disturbances and depression severity in college student athletes. Methods Student athletes (N = 993) from the Pacific Athlete Conference-12 completed the Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire-Sleep Difficulty Subscale (ASSQ-SDS) and Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). Parallel multiple mediator models were conducted to examine whether the relationship between sleep disturbances and depression severity was mediated by sleep duration, sleep quality, sleep onset latency, and difficulty maintaining sleep. Results Using bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples, the indirect effect of sleep disturbances on depression severity was significantly different from zero through sleep quality (indirect effect = .17, SE = .07, 95% CI [.04, .31]) and difficulty maintaining sleep (indirect effect = .12, SE = .03, 95% CI [.06, .19]). Sleep disturbances were associated with sleep quality (b = .29, SE = .01, p < .001) and difficulty maintaining sleep (b = .16, SE = .01, p < .001). Sleep quality (b = .59, SE = .16, p < .001) and difficulty maintaining sleep (b = .78, SE = .17, p < .001) were associated with depression severity. No other mediators reached statistical significance. Conclusion Results demonstrate that perceived sleep quality and difficulty maintaining sleep mediate the relationship between general sleep disturbances and depression severity in college student athletes. Findings suggest that sleep quality and difficulty maintaining sleep may be more impactful on depression than other facets of sleep and may be clinically useful targets of intervention for depression. Support (if any)