College-educated Women Research Articles

Racial inequity in preterm delivery among college-educated women: The role of racism.

Non-Hispanic Black (NHB) women face a 50% increased risk of delivering preterm compared to non-Hispanic White (NHW) women in the United States. Sociodemographic and pregnancy risk factors do not fully explain this inequity. This inequity exists even among women with a college education, although recent empirical analysis on racial inequities in preterm delivery (PTD) among college-educated women is lacking. Furthermore, the contribution of preconception risk factors to the racial inequity in PTD has not been examined. To determine whether: (i) there is a NHB-NHW inequity in PTD among college-educated women; (ii) the prevalence of known, measured sociodemographic, pregnancy, and preconception PTD risk factors differs between NHB and NHW college-educated women; (iii) equalising the distribution of risk factors between college-educated NHB and NHW women reduces or eliminates the racial inequity in PTD. We analysed US natality data from 2015 to 2016 among women with a college degree or higher (n=2326512). We calculated frequencies of sociodemographic, pregnancy, and preconception risk factors among all women and separately by race/ethnicity. We used modified Poisson regression models to estimate the association between race/ethnicity and PTD controlling for known, measured sociodemographic, pregnancy, and preconception factors. The largest percentage point differences in risk factors between NHW and NHB women were observed for marital status, trimester of care initiation, body mass index, and birth interval. Among college-educated women, the unadjusted risk of PTD for NHB women was 1.77 (95% CI 1.74, 1.79) times the risk for NHW women. After controlling for sociodemographic, pregnancy, and preconception factors, this attenuated to RR 1.47 (95% CI 1.45, 1.49). A racial inequity in PTD persists among college-educated women. Racism contributes to the NHB-NHW inequity in PTD, in part, through its influence on known sociodemographic, pregnancy, and preconception risk factors for PTD and, in part, through unmeasured pathways.

Love, life, and “leftover ladies” in urban China: Staying modernly single in patriarchal traditions

The population in urban China has shown rising age at first marriage and declining marriage rates, especially among college educated professional women who are in their late 20s or their 30s. We investigate the determinants of marriage formation for urban women aged 27 or above who tend to be termed “leftover ladies”. We estimate a recursive mixed-equation model to describe correlated profiles of career, education and marriage. Conventional social norms on gender, especially patriarchy, still prevail. Factors that are not favorable for a conventionally wifely role reduce women's likelihood of marriage. In particular, we reveal a “marital college-discount” of college education. It reduces the probability of marriage by 2.88%–3.6% and a postgraduate degree further oppresses it by 8.4%–10.4%. Favorable characteristics such as facial attractiveness only raises the likelihood of marriage formation for non-college educated women, while pushing up non-marriage probabilities for women with at least college degrees.

Coding Boot Camps

College-educated women in the workforce are discovering a latent interest in and aptitude for computing motivated by the prevalence of computing as an integral part of jobs in many fields as well as continued headlines about the number of unfilled, highly paid computing jobs. One of these women's choices for retraining are the so-called coding boot camps that teach programming skills through intensive multi-week courses. This article reports on a qualitative research study focused on the Silicon Valley area of California. We used social cognitive career theory (SCCT) to investigate the larger context surrounding women entering computing professions through boot camp learning sites, including: the environment of a booming technology workforce, boot camps as learning settings , the characteristics of women who attend boot camps, how retraining at a coding boot camp influence women's computing self-efficacy and outcome expectations , and the performance attainments of women at boot camps. Interview data was collected from 14 women who had attended boot camps—first before graduating from the boot camp and again after six months in the workforce. To contextualize the computing ecosystem, we conducted single interviews with 6 boot camp organizers/curriculum developers, 7 industry hiring managers, and 14 university computer science faculty. To provide a contrast with women at boot camps, we interviewed 5 women who majored in computer science at the university and with 17 men who had attended boot camps. Structural data coding and analysis was done focused on the SCCT mechanisms of environment, person inputs, learning experiences, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and performance attainments. Findings here demonstrate that training at a boot camp can be the catalyst for college-educated women to attain computing jobs and careers, although these entry-level jobs may be a compromise to the goal of a software development job and are unlikely to lead to a job at large, well-known, established technology companies.

Women coming to terms with aging: the importance of psychosocial factors

ABSTRACT Studies concerning the process of aging for women tend to focus on age-related physical changes and their correlates, often overlooking the psychosocial aspects of aging. The current study aims to understand women’s experiences of aging, while also validating recently developed separate Q-sort scales of ego integrity and despair. Data drawn from a larger study of older college-educated women were used to examine relationships between health, concern about aging, ego integrity, despair, and well-being. Hierarchical linear regression results indicate that despair – but not ego integrity – was related to well-being over and above health status and levels of aging concern.

Will Women Catch Up to Their Fertility Expectations?

In 2019, the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) dipped to 1.71 children per woman, an all-time low and far below the replacement rate of 2.10 children. Current levels of low fertility have important implications for the economy. To assess fertility trends, demographers often look at fertility expectations. Using this metric suggests no cause for concern. Women in their early 30s today, when first asked about their childbearing expectations in their early 20s, expected to have more than two children, similar to previous cohorts. But today’s 30-year-olds are much further from their 20-24 expectations than previous cohorts. And a number of trends have emerged in recent years that could suggest lower fertility. This project aims to shed light on whether women are likely to catch up to their fertility expectations and what factors influence their ability to do so. The analysis uses a regression framework to examine factors that drive fertility after age 30 for an older cohort of women surveyed in the NLSY79. The results are then used to predict the completed fertility for the younger cohort of women surveyed in the NLSY97, who are in their early- to mid-30s and still in their childbearing years. The paper found that: • Fertility expectations are the primary driver of achieved fertility for non-college graduates. • For college-educated women, other factors such as religion, marital status, and career length affect whether they achieve their fertility expectations. • Women in the NLSY97 (born in 1980-1984) are projected to have a total of 1.96 children. • This means that the gap between childbearing expectations in their early 20s and completed fertility will increase to 0.48, much higher than historical averages of 0.30. The policy implications of the findings are: • While the results seem to suggest that the current 1.71 TFR is capturing tempo effects from delayed childbearing, long-run fertility may be lower than 1.96 for several reasons. • The results are based on the 1980-1984 cohort, but younger cohorts may have fewer children because they have lower fertility expectations and face more economic uncertainty. • The gap might also grow since COVID-19 is likely to place downward pressure on fertility, both for the cohort studied and for younger women. • Therefore, while the current 1.71 TFR may reflect delayed fertility, actual completed fertility, especially for younger cohorts, might be lower than 1.96.

Exploration of the Effects of Rural Obstetric Unit Closures on Birth Outcomes in North Carolina.

Closures of rural labor and delivery (L/D) units have prompted national and state-based efforts to assess the impact on birth outcomes. This study explores local effects of L/D closures in rural areas of North Carolina (NC). This is a retrospective cohort study of birth outcomes of 4,065 women in 5 rural areas of NC with L/D unit closures between 2013 and 2017. Outcomes were abstracted from birth certificate data from the NC Vital Statistics Reporting System. Localized outcomes 1 year prior to L/D unit closure were compared with outcomes 1 and 2 years post closure, including: (1) birth location and demographics, (2) change in travel patterns for birth, and (3) birth outcomes, including rates of labor induction, cesarean deliveries, maternal morbidity, and neonatal outcomes. Before closures, 25%-56% of deliveries occurred outside county of residence. Commercially insured and college-educated women were more likely to deliver out-of-area. Closures increased travel distance to delivery hospital an average of 7-27 miles. In 2 areas, cesarean delivery rates decreased despite an increase in labor inductions. There was also variability between areas in prenatal care adequacy and breastfeeding. We found that L/D unit closures in rural NC disproportionately affected women on Medicaid. The impact showed area-specific variability, highlighting effects potentially masked by statewide or national analyses. Implications for future L/D closures would be eased by regional coordination and planning to mitigate negative effects, and state and national policies should address the excess burden placed on vulnerable populations.

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Maternal and Neonatal Adverse Outcomes in College-Educated Women.

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Maternal and Neonatal Adverse Outcomes in College-Educated Women.

Diet quality during pregnancy predicts maternal concentrations of phthalates and phthalate alternatives

Background/Objectives: Phthalates are endocrine disrupting chemicals that may be particularly disruptive during pregnancy. Pregnancy diet is a vehicle for some phthalate exposures. Therefore, we evaluated whether diet quality predicts urinary phthalate/phthalate alternative biomarkers concentrations in pregnant women.Methods: This study includes 427 pregnant women from Champaign-Urbana, Illinois. Alternative Healthy Eating Index (AHEI) scores were estimated from 3-month food frequency questionnaires administered at 34-37 weeks gestation, with higher AHEI scores representing lower chronic diseases risk. We quantified 19 phthalate/phthalate alternative metabolites in cross-pregnancy pools of five first-morning urines in three approximately equal batches based on year of enrollment (2013-2019). In analyses, we used individual metabolites, molar-sums of metabolites of the same parent phthalates (e.g., di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (SumDEHP), dibutyl phthalate (SumDBP), di-isononyl phthalate (SumDiNP)) or phthalate replacements (1,2-cyclohexane,dicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester (SumDiNCH), di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (SumDEHTP)). Linear regression models evaluated associations between AHEI and ln-transformed specific-gravity adjusted biomarker concentrations while controlling for demographic/lifestyle characteristics, and stratified by chemical analysis batch.Results: Median AHEI score in these predominantly White, college-educated women was 55.9 (possible 110, range: 24.9-82.4) and varied little across time. Biomarker concentrations were similar to U.S. women and many varied over time: monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP), mono(carboxyisononyl) phthalate (MCNP), mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MCPP), SumDEHP, and SumDiNP decreased from 2013 to 2019, whereas SumDiNCH and SumDEHTP increased. Women with higher AHEI scores had lower SumDEHP, SumDEHTP, and SumDiNP regardless of time, and MBzP, MCNP, MCPP, and SumDBP only in the earliest batch. The strongest association was between AHEI and SumDEHTP, which decreased by 2.5% for each unit increase in AHEI (95%CI: -3.8, -1.3). Conclusions: In this cohort, pregnant women with high diet quality were the least exposed to plasticizer phthalates/alternatives. While these patterns should be confirmed in other populations, we also noted that associations between diet quality and some phthalates/phthalate alternatives have changed over time.

Maternal exposure to plasticizer compounds is inversely associated with gestational weight gain in women with obesity

Background/Aims: Phthalates are endocrine disruptors with ubiquitous exposure in pregnant women, but their impact on maternal gestational weight gain (GWG) is unclear. We investigated associations of prenatal exposure with GWG and considered whether associations differed by maternal pre-pregnancy BMI (ppBMI). Methods: In 444 pregnant women from Champaign-Urbana, Illinois, we calculated GWG (kg) from self-reported pre-pregnancy weight and weight at median (range) 34 (29-38) weeks gestation. We quantified 19 phthalate/alternative metabolites in pools of five first-morning cross-pregnancy urines. These reflect exposures to 10 phthalates/alternatives as individual metabolites or molar sums of metabolites from the same phthalate/alternative [e.g. di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (SumDEHP), diisononyl phthalate (SumDiNP), di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (SumDEHTP)]. We categorized ppBMI (kg/m2) as under-/normal weight (<25.0), overweight (25.0-29.9), and obese (≥30.0). We used linear regression to assess overall and ppBMI-stratified associations of ln-transformed specific gravity-adjusted biomarker concentrations with GWG, controlling for maternal age, race, ppBMI, parity, smoking status, diet quality, fetal sex, and gestational age at mid-to-late pregnancy weight. Results: These predominately Caucasian/White, college-educated women gained on average 12.1kg through mid-to-late pregnancy and >50% had a normal ppBMI. All women were exposed to measured chemicals, with similar concentrations to U.S. women. Overall, only SumDEHP and SumDEHTP were associated with GWG. Specifically, two-fold increases in SumDEHP and SumDEHTP were associated with 0.8kg lower GWG (95%CI: -1.5, -0.7 and -1.4, -0.2), respectively. However, when stratified by ppBMI, associations were strongest in obese women. Only in obese women, two-fold increases in SumDEHP and SumDiNP were associated with 1.9 and 1.3kg lower GWG, respectively. Similarly, in overweight and obese women, a two-fold increase in SumDEHTP was associated with 1.2 and 1.6kg lower GWG. Conclusions: In obese women, prenatal exposure to phthalates is associated with reduced GWG. Given the importance of appropriate GWG for fetal growth, especially in obese women, these findings should be corroborated in other populations.

Prevalence and predictors of vitamin D deficiency in a nationally representative sample of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults.

Vitamin D deficiency (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentration <50 nmol/l) is recognised as a public health problem globally. The present study details the prevalence and predictors of vitamin D deficiency in a nationally representative sample (n 3250) of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults aged ≥18 years. We used data from the 2012-2013 Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey (AATSIHS). Serum 25(OH)D concentrations were measured by liquid chromatography-tandem MS. Survey-weighted logistic regression models were used to determine the independent predictors of vitamin D deficiency. Approximately 27 % of adult AATSIHS participants were vitamin D deficient. Vitamin D deficiency was more prevalent in remote areas (39 %) than in non-remote areas (23 %). Independent predictors of vitamin D deficiency included assessment during winter (men, adjusted OR (aOR) 5·7; 95 % CI 2·2, 14·6; women, aOR 2·2; 95 % CI 1·3, 3·8) and spring (men, aOR 3·3; 95 % CI 1·4, 7·5; women, aOR 2·6; 95 % CI 1·5, 4·5) compared with summer, and obesity (men, aOR 2·6; 95 % CI 1·2, 5·4; women, aOR 4·3; 95 % CI 2·8, 6·8) compared with healthy weight. Statistically significant associations were evident for current smokers (men only, aOR 2·0; 95 % CI 1·2, 3·4), remote-dwelling women (aOR 2·0; 95 % CI 1·4, 2·9) and university-educated women (aOR 2·4; 95 % CI 1·2, 4·8). Given the high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in this population, strategies to maintain adequate vitamin D status through safe sun exposure and dietary approaches are needed.

Counseling US women for economic citizenship: Deans of women and the beginnings of vocational guidance

ABSTRACT Historians of education have argued that the field of vocational guidance was founded by men in Boston in 1909, and that these guidance practices were not used in a college setting until the mid-1940s after the close of World War II. This article illustrates the history of early female student affairs practitioners developing and implementing vocational career guidance with women college students by the very early 1900s. A coalition of highly educated women created a national network to place female graduates into employment outside of teaching as a part of an effort to provide college-educated women with a living wage, and economic citizenship that allowed their autonomy as individuals in US society. This network extended into Canada, England, and the International Federation of University Women.

Incidence and Determinants of Caesarean Section in Shiraz, Iran.

The rate of Caesarean section (CS) without medical indication has increased markedly worldwide in the past decades. This study reports the incidence of CS and identifies the determinants of elective and emergency CS as separate pregnancy outcomes in a cohort of Iranian women. Mothers (n = 700) of healthy, full-term infants were recruited from five maternity hospitals in Shiraz. The association between maternal socio-demographic and biomedical factors with mode of delivery was explored using multivariable, multinomial logistic regression. Most mothers underwent either an elective (35.4%) or emergency (34.7%) CS. After adjustment, women were more likely to deliver by elective CS than vaginally if they were older (≥30 year) compared to younger mothers (<25 year) (Relative Risk Ratio (RRR) 2.22; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 1.28, 3.84), and had given birth at a private hospital (RRR 3.64; 95% CI 1.79, 7.38). Compared to those educated to primary or lower secondary level, university educated women were more likely to have undergone an elective (RRR 2.65; 95% CI 1.54, 4.58) or an emergency CS (RRR 3.92; 95% CI 2.27, 6.78) than a vaginal delivery. Similarly, overweight or obese women were more likely than healthy weight women to have undergone an elective (RRR 1.91; 95% CI 1.27, 2.87) or an emergency CS (RRR 2.02; 95% CI 1.35, 3.02) than a vaginal delivery. Specialist education of obstetricians and midwives along with financial incentives paid to private hospitals to encourage natural delivery may help in the reduction of unnecessary CS in Iran. In addition, to increase their childbirth knowledge and self-efficacy, pregnant women need to have the opportunity to attend purposefully designed antenatal childbirth preparation classes where they receive evidence-based information on natural childbirth and alternative methods of pain control, as well as the risks and indications for CS.

Have Health Reforms in Brazil Reduced Inequities in Access to Cancer Screenings for Women?

We measured asset-based and education-based inequity in utilization of 2 cancer screening tests, Pap tests and mammograms, using nationally representative surveys conducted in 2003, 2008, and 2013. Utilization of Pap tests (ages 25-59 years) and mammograms (ages 50-69 years) increased over time. Asset-based and education-based inequities declined significantly for both screening tests, particularly among women who reported a doctor visit in the previous year. This decline coincided with increases in the coverage of primary health care in Brazil. However, barriers persisted; in 2013, college-educated women were still 2.27 times more likely to have a mammogram than those who were illiterate.

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Maternal and Neonatal Adverse Outcomes in College-Educated Women.

To compare composite maternal and neonatal adverse outcomes among women with at least a bachelor's degree by racial and ethnic groups. This was a retrospective cohort study using the U.S. vital statistics data sets. We included women with at least a bachelor's degree who delivered a nonanomalous live singleton neonate at 24-40 weeks. The primary outcome, composite maternal adverse outcome, included admission to intensive care unit, maternal transfusion, ruptured uterus, unplanned hysterectomy, or unplanned operating room procedure after delivery. The secondary outcome, composite neonatal adverse outcome, included 5-minute Apgar score less than 5, assisted ventilation for more than 6 hours, neonatal seizure, birth injury, or neonatal death. Multivariable regression models were used to estimate the association between maternal race and adverse outcomes. Of 11.8 million live births, 2.2 million (19%) met the inclusion criteria; 81.5% were to non-Hispanic white women, 8.5% to non-Hispanic black women, and 10% Hispanic women. The overall rate of composite maternal adverse outcome was 5.3 per 1,000 live births. Compared with non-Hispanic white women, the risk of the composite maternal adverse outcome was significantly higher among non-Hispanic black women (adjusted relative risk [aRR] 1.20; 95% CI 1.13-1.27), but lower among Hispanic women (aRR 0.69; 95% CI 0.64-0.74), a pattern which varied among different gestational age groups. The overall rate of composite neonatal adverse outcome was 11.6 per 1,000 live births. The risk of composite neonatal adverse outcome was significantly higher among neonates with non-Hispanic black mothers (aRR 1.25; 95% CI 1.20-1.30), but lower among neonates with Hispanic mothers (aRR 0.71; 95% CI 0.68-0.75), compared with neonates delivered by non-Hispanic white mothers and varied across gestational age. Among women with at least a bachelor's degree, small but measurable racial and ethnic disparities in composite maternal and neonatal adverse outcomes.

Religion across Axes of Inequality in the United States: Belonging, Behaving, and Believing at the Intersections of Gender, Race, Class, and Sexuality

Much research considers group differences in religious belonging, behaving, and/or believing by gender, race, ethnicity, class, or sexuality. This study, however, considers all these factors at once, providing the first comprehensive snapshot of religious belonging, behaving, and believing across and within these axes of inequality in the United States. Leveraging unique data with an exceptionally large sample, I explore religion across 40 unique configurations of intersecting identities (e.g., one is non-Latina Black heterosexual college-educated women). Across all measures considered, Black women are at the top—however, depending on the measure, there are different subsets of Black women at the top. And whereas most sexual minorities are among the least religious Americans, Black sexual minorities—and especially those with a college degree—exhibit high levels of religious belonging, behaving, and believing. In fact, Black sexual minority women with a college degree meditate more frequently than any other group considered. Overall, whereas we see clear divides in how religious people are by factors like gender, education, and sexual orientation among most racial groups, race appears to overpower other factors for Black Americans who are consistently religious regardless of their other characteristics. By presenting levels of religious belonging, behaving, and believing across configurations of gender, race, ethnicity, class, and sexuality in the contemporary United States, this study provides a more complex and complete picture of American religion and spirituality.

Changing Educational Differentials in Female Sterilization.

Female surgical sterilization is widely used in the United States. Educational differentials in sterilization are large, but poorly understood. Improved understanding of these differences is important to ensure that all women have access to the full range of contraceptive methods. Data from the National Survey of Family Growth (1973-2015) from 8,100 women aged 40-44 were used to describe trends in sterilization and other contraceptive methods by educational attainment. Demographic standardization was employed to examine how compositional changes in marital status and age at first birth contribute to aggregate changes in sterilization prevalence. In 1982, women with a high school diploma and those with at least a bachelor's degree reported similar levels of sterilization use (38% and 32%, respectively), but by 2011-2015, prevalence had declined to 19% among college-educated women and had increased to 44% among those with a diploma. The trend among college graduates was largely attributable to delayed fertility; all other things being equal, if their age at first birth had not increased, the prevalence of sterilization would have declined by approximately 3% instead of 14% between 1982 and 2002. Increased use of sterilization among women with a high school diploma was only weakly related to changes in birth timing and marital status. Among women with a high school diploma, elements other than childbearing and marital status-such as contraceptive preferences and access-appeared to influence their contraceptive behavior. Sterilization differentials between high school and college graduates may reflect or exacerbate other socioeconomic disparities that affect women's health and well-being.

Prevalence and correlates of cannabis use in pregnancy and while breastfeeding: A survey-based study

<h3>Objectives</h3> Recreational cannabis use has been legal in Canada since October 2018. This study sought to determine current prevalence and trends of cannabis use among pregnant women in the greater Hamilton area. <h3>Methods</h3> An anonymous survey was distributed in May–October 2019 to pregnant patients attending family practice, midwifery, low- and high-risk obstetrical clinics. It was carried out via electronic tablet, and included lifetime and in-pregnancy cannabis use, intent for postpartum cannabis use, and characteristics of use. Demographic data included age, relationship status, partner cannabis use, educational attainment, and household income. Descriptive statistics were calculated, and logistic regression analyses were performed to explore relationships between cannabis use and demographics. <h3>Results</h3> Among 478 respondents, 11.3% had used cannabis at any point in pregnancy, 4.2% were currently using and 4.8% intended to use while breastfeeding. Of current users, 65.0% reported using at least weekly and 95.0% reported nausea, sleep, or anxiety as reasons for use. Women who used cannabis in pregnancy and intended to use while breastfeeding were more likely to report partner cannabis use and lower educational attainment. Women reporting partner cannabis use were 3.3-fold more likely to use cannabis in pregnancy (p<0.001; 95% CI 1.77–6.17) and women without post-secondary education were 8.6-fold more likely to use cannabis than university-educated women (P<0.0001; 95% CI 3.78–19.52). <h3>Conclusions</h3> Partner cannabis use and lower educational attainment predict likelihood of in-pregnancy cannabis use and intent for postpartum use. Education about safer alternatives for coping with nausea, sleep difficulties and anxiety may help reduce the prevalence of cannabis use in pregnancy.

Racial disparities in prematurity persist among women of high socioeconomic status

Despite persistent racial disparities in preterm birth (PTB) in the US among non-Hispanic (NH) black women compared to NH white women, it remains controversial whether sociodemographic factors can explain these differences. We sought to evaluate whether disparities in PTB persist among NH black women with high socioeconomic status (SES). We conducted a population-based cohort study of all live births in the US from 2015-2017 using birth certificate data from the National Vital Statistics System. We included singleton, non-anomalous live births among women who were of high SES (defined as having ≥ 16 years of education, private insurance, and not receiving Women, Infants and Children [WIC] benefits) and who identified as NH white, NH black, or 'mixed' NH black and white race. The primary outcome was PTB <37 weeks; secondary outcomes included PTB <34 and <28 weeks. In addition, analyses were repeated considering birthweight <2500g as a surrogate for preterm birth <37 weeks, birthweight <1500g as a surrogate for preterm birth <34 weeks, and birthweight <750g as a surrogate for preterm birth <28 weeks' gestation. Data were analyzed with chi-square, t-test, and logistic regression. 2,170,686 live births met inclusion criteria, with 92.9% NH white, 6.7% NH black, and 0.4% both NH white and black race. Overall, 5.9% delivered <37, 1.3% <34, and 0.3 % <28 weeks. In unadjusted analyses of women with high SES, the PTB rate at each gestational age cutoff was higher for women of 'mixed' NH white and black race, and highest for women who were NH black only compared to women who were NH white only. In regression models we further adjusted for women with insurance and prenatal care their entire pregnancy, maternal race was associated with higher odds of PTB at each GA cutoff, with the highest odds observed at <28 weeks. Finally, in further adjustement analysis including only the 1,934,912 women who received prenatal care in the first trimester, findings were similar. Rates of preterm birth at each gestational age cutoff remained highest for women who identified as non-Hispanic black, intermediate for women identifying as both non-Hispanic black and white race, and lowest for non-Hispanic white women at <37 weeks (9.9% vs. 6.1% vs. 5.5%, respectively; p<0.001), <34 weeks (3.5% vs. 1.5% vs. 1.1%, respectively; p<0.001), and <28 weeks' gestation (1.2% vs. 0.4% vs. 0.2%, respectively, p<0.001). Even among college-educated women with private insurance who are not receiving WIC, racial disparities in prematurity persist. These national findings are consistent with prior studies that suggest factors other than socio-demographics are important in the underlying pathogenesis of PTB.

Labor market influences on Women's fertility decisions: Longitudinal evidence from Canada

While fertility theories suggest that insecure labor market experiences encourage women to postpone having children, few have examined whether job insecurity perceptions influence fertility in the North American context—an omission we address in the current study. Findings from event history analyses of a panel dataset of Canadian workers (Canadian Work, Stress and Health Study) reveal that perceived job insecurity is salient for women's first birth decisions but not subsequent births. Further subgroup analyses show that the association between perceived job insecurity and likelihood of a first birth is limited to college-educated women and those in low unemployment labor market regions. Among women with less than a college degree and those in high-unemployment regions, the likelihood of a first birth does not vary by respondents' perceptions of insecurity. Results suggest a more nuanced relationship between insecure work and women's childbearing decisions than predicted by traditional pro-cyclical accounts of the economy-fertility association.

Assessing Workplace Breastfeeding Support Among Working Mothers in the United States.

Background: Workplace breastfeeding resources (e.g., break times and private spaces) help working mothers exclusively breastfeed for 6 months. However, not every employer offers lactation resources as specified in the Affordable Care Act. This study examined working mothers' access to workplace breastfeeding resources, their barriers and facilitators to combining breastfeeding and work, and their recommendations to improve access to breastfeeding resources. Methods: Working mothers between the ages of 18 to 50 years who had given birth in the previous 2 years were recruited online to participate in the study. An online, cross-sectional survey collected qualitative and quantitative data from working mothers on their access to workplace breastfeeding resources and experiences with breastfeeding at work. Descriptive statistics were used to report the quantitative results from the survey, and the qualitative data were examined using the constant comparative method. Findings: Fifty-two participants met the inclusion criteria for the study and completed the survey. Most of the participants in the study were White, college-educated women who worked in clerical or administration support and education occupations. Approximately 78.8% of the participants reported access to private spaces and 65.4% reported access to break times for breastfeeding. Fewer participants reported access to breast pumps, lactation consultants, and support groups. Conclusions/Application to Practice: There are gaps in access to workplace breastfeeding resources, but occupational health nurses can inform and help employers implement lactation resources to reduce breastfeeding disparities.