College-aged Athletes Research Articles

Acute Effects of Local Vibration With Biomechanical Muscle Stimulation on Low-Back Flexibility and Perceived Stiffness

This study investigated the eff ects of biomechanical muscle stimulation (BMS) on low-back and hamstring fl exibility and perceived low-back stiff ness. Three healthy populations were examined: college-aged nonathletes, college-aged athletes, and physically active older adults. Low-back stiff ness was reported using a stiff ness Likert scale and range of motion was measured using the sit-and-reach test. Each group received BMS treatment and was retested. The college-aged nonathletes completed a control (no BMS treatment) condition on a separate day. Signifi cant improvement (P � .001) in sit-andreach performance after treatment in all treatment groups was noted (pre-BMS, 27.8 � 10.6 cm; post-BMS treatment, 30.1 � 10.4 cm). Average perceived stiff ness decreased (P = .01) in all groups after undergoing treatment (pre-BMS, 5.0 � 2.4; postBMS, 3.2 � 2.1). Perceived stiff ness did not change (P = .7) in the control condition for the nonathlete group (precontrol, 5.3 � 2.2; postcontrol, 5.2 � 2.0). [Athletic Training & Sports Health Care.

Updates and Evidence Concerning Concussion in the Physically Active Population

Updates and Evidence Concerning Concussion in the Physically Active Population

Exercise-Induced Dyspnea in College-Aged Athletes

Purpose: Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing during exercise is referred to as exercise-induced dyspnea (EID), and is a common complaint from athletes. The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of EID among college aged athletes and to explore the medical encounters, including diagnostic testing, arising from this complaint. Method: We surveyed intercollegiate (n=122) and club sport (n=103) athletes regarding their experience with EID, including medical diagnoses, diagnostic procedures, environmental factors, and treatment effectiveness. Results: Fifty-two percent of respondents (n=112) reported episodes of EID. Intercollegiate and club sport athletes did not differ in regard to the prevalence of EID, utilization of health provider services, or diagnoses. Sixty-six percent of respondents with EID reported a physician visit secondary to EID with resulting diagnoses of asthma, EIB, allergies, stress reaction, and vocal cord dysfunction, or a combination of two or more of these conditions. Less than 30% of those diagnosed with asthma and/or EIB reported a diagnosis based on a pulmonary function test. Conclusions and Recommendations: EID is a common, yet complex, condition that appears to be as prevalent in club sports as it is in intercollegiate athletics. Asthma and exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB) are the most familiar diagnoses associated with EID, though many conditions present with similar symptoms. Objective diagnostic testing was not commonly reported among college-aged athletes with asthma or EIB in this study. This finding conflicts with recent evidence-based recommendations for objective testing for athletes with EID to ensure appropriate and effective treatment plans.

Anthropometry as a Predictor of Vertical Jump Heights Derived From an Instrumented Platform

The current study purpose examined the vertical height-anthropometry relationship with jump data obtained from an instrumented platform. Our methods required college-aged (n = 177) subjects to make 3 visits to our laboratory to measure the following anthropometric variables: height, body mass, upper arm length (UAL), lower arm length, upper leg length, and lower leg length. Per jump, maximum height was measured in 3 ways: from the subjects' takeoff, hang times, and as they landed on the platform. Standard multivariate regression assessed how well anthropometry predicted the criterion variance per gender (men, women, pooled) and jump height method (takeoff, hang time, landing) combination. Z-scores indicated that small amounts of the total data were outliers. The results showed that the majority of outliers were from jump heights calculated as women landed on the platform. With the genders pooled, anthropometry predicted a significant (p < 0.05) amount of variance from jump heights calculated from both takeoff and hang time. The anthropometry-vertical jump relationship was not significant from heights calculated as subjects landed on the platform, likely due to the female outliers. Yet anthropometric data of men did predict a significant amount of variance from heights calculated when they landed on the platform; univariate correlations of men's data revealed that UAL was the best predictor. It was concluded that the large sample of men's data led to greater data heterogeneity and a higher univariate correlation. Because of our sample size and data heterogeneity, practical applications suggest that coaches may find our results best predict performance for a variety of college-aged athletes and vertical jump enthusiasts.

Effects Of Fitness Media During Physical Activity On Anxiety And Depression In College-aged Male Athletes And Non-athletes

Effects Of Fitness Media During Physical Activity On Anxiety And Depression In College-aged Male Athletes And Non-athletes

The Effects of Visual Feedback and Verbal Encouragement in College-Age Male and Female Athletes

The Effects of Visual Feedback and Verbal Encouragement in College-Age Male and Female Athletes

Religiousness as a Factor of Hesitation Against Doping Behavior in College-Age Athletes

Religiousness is rarely studied as protective factor against substance use and misuse in sport. Further, we have found no investigation where college-age athletes were sampled and studied accordingly. The aim of the present study was to identify gender-specific protective effects of the religiousness (measured by Santa Clara Questionnaire) and other social, educational, and sport variables as a potential factors of hesitation against doping behaviors in sport-science-students from Mostar, Bosnia, and Herzegovina (51 women and 111 men; age range, 18-26). The gender differences for the non-parametric variables were established by Kruskall-Wallis test, while for the parametric variables the t-test for independent samples was used. Multiple regression calculations revealed religiousness as the most significant predictor of the social, health, sport and legal factors of hesitation against doping behaviors in both genders. However, the differential influence of the social, educational, sport and religious factors in relation to negative consequences of the doping behaviors is found for men and women. Such differential influence must be emphasized in tailoring the anti-doping policy and interventions.

The Accuracy of a BMI-Based Equation in Predicting Percent Body Fat in College-Age Female Athletes

The Accuracy of a BMI-Based Equation in Predicting Percent Body Fat in College-Age Female Athletes

Effects of Commercial Energy Drink Consumption on Athletic Performance and Body Composition

Energy drinks are frequently marketed to individuals interested in athletics and an active lifestyle. From 2001 to 2008, estimates of energy drink use in adolescent to middle-aged populations ranged from 24% to 56%. Most energy drinks feature caffeine and a combination of other components, including taurine, sucrose, guarana, ginseng, niacin, pyridoxine, and cyanocobalamin. This article examines the evidence for 2 commonly purported uses of energy drinks: athletic performance enhancement and weight loss. Observed ergogenic benefits of energy drinks are likely attributable to caffeine and glucose content. There is conflicting evidence regarding the impact of energy drinks on weight loss, although some data suggest that combining energy drink use with exercise may enhance body fat reduction. As with any pharmacologically active substance, energy drinks are associated with adverse effects. Combining energy drinks with alcohol exacerbates safety concerns and is an increasingly common practice contributing to toxic jock identity among college-aged male athletes. Practitioners should monitor identified populations likely to consume these loosely regulated beverages.

Biomechanical Analysis of Stresses to the Fifth Metatarsal Bone During Sports Maneuvers: Implications for Fifth Metatarsal Fractures

Fifth metatarsal stress fractures are an increasing problem in elite and recreational athletic populations. One possible mechanism of injury is the many bending moments applied to the fifth metatarsal during dynamic sports maneuvers involving rapid changes in direction and speed. A potentially important bending moment is loading of the base versus the head of the fifth metatarsal, which tends to cause a bending moment along the bone. To determine which maneuver applies the greatest pressure differential between the base and head of the fifth metatarsal, 10 college-aged male athletes performed running straight, jump take-off, jump landing, cutting right, cutting left, and accelerating while plantar pressures were recorded using a Pedar insole system (Novel Electronics, Inc., St. Paul, MN). Peak pressure at the fifth metatarsal base was subtracted from the peak pressure at the fifth metatarsal head to obtain the fifth metatarsal pressure differential—a corollary to the bending moment. The greatest fifth metatarsal pressure differential was observed during acceleration maneuvers (20 ± 13.1 N/cm2; P < 0.0001) followed by running straight (11.6 ± 8 N/cm2; P < 0.0008). The other maneuvers had low pressure differentials: jump take-off (4.2 ± 10.6 N/cm2), jump landing (3.7 ± 9.2 N/cm2), cutting left (2.3 ± 4.2 N/cm2), and cutting right (–2.1 ± 10 N/cm2). It appears that acceleration maneuvers may apply the largest bending moments to the fifth metatarsal and could lead to stress fractures. Because fifth metatarsal stress fractures are associated with rapid increases in training volume, reducing the number of acceleration events may be effective in altering the balance between bone resorption and bone formation and reducing stress fracture risk. Careful planning of training programs allowing for adequate rest between intense bouts of exercise involving many acceleration maneuvers may be the best preventative measure.

Self-Reported Physical Activity Improves Prediction of Body Fatness in Young Adults

To examine self-reported physical activity levels from the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) as an independent predictor of dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA)-measured percent body fat (%BF) from body mass index (BMI), gender, and race. Two hundred and seventy-eight students, aged 18-24 yr, volunteered to participate. There were 133 males (85 white and 48 black) and 145 females (77 white and 68 black). Total activity levels were quantified in MET hours per week (MET h wk(-1)) using the IPAQ short form. Height and weight were measured, and BMI values were calculated (kg m(-2)). %BF was assessed using DXA. Linear regression analysis was used to develop and compare a body fat prediction equation with (full) and without (reduced) the variable MET-h.wk. Both models included BMI, gender, and race as predictor variables. The prediction sum of squares (PRESS) statistic was used to cross-validate both models, and the individual predictive accuracy was compared using modified Bland-Altman plots. Mean +/- SD values were as follows: BMI = 24.4 +/- 4.1 kg m(-2), %BF = 24.5 +/- 9.3%, and MET h wk(-1) = 37.4 +/- 21.9. Gender, BMI, and race explained 81% of the variance in %BF, with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 4.07. The full model with MET-h.wk improved the prediction of %BF by 2% (R2 = 0.83, RMSE = 3.87). When cross-validated, the corresponding PRESS statistics for the reduced and full model were 4.10 and 3.90, respectively. Bland-Altman limits of agreement were greater for the reduced model compared with the full model (-8.09, 8.10 vs -7.67, 7.68). These results suggest that %BF can be predicted with greater precision and accuracy in a young adult population when MET-h.wk are included in addition to BMI, gender, and race.

Drive for Muscularity and Beliefs about Legal Performance Enhancing Substances as Predictors of Current Use and Willingness to Use

Using a sample of college-aged male athletes (n = 56) and nonathletes (n = 43), negative and positive beliefs were tested as mediators of the relationship between Drive for Muscularity (DM) and use of performance enhancing substances (PES). Results showed that the Muscularity Behavior (MB) and Muscularity-oriented Body Image (MBI) subscales of the DM scale differentially predicted PES use. Results also showed that negative and positive beliefs are mediators MB-PES use relationship. Neither the MB nor MBI subscales predicted willingness to use a new performance enhancing drug.

Return of Postural Control to Baseline After Anaerobic and Aerobic Exercise Protocols

With regard to sideline concussion testing, the effect of fatigue associated with different types of exercise on postural control is unknown. To evaluate the effects of fatigue on postural control in healthy college-aged athletes performing anaerobic and aerobic exercise protocols and to establish an immediate recovery time course from each exercise protocol for postural control measures to return to baseline status. Counterbalanced, repeated measures. Research laboratory. Thirty-six collegiate athletes (18 males, 18 females; age = 19.00 +/- 1.01 years, height = 172.44 +/- 10.47 cm, mass = 69.72 +/- 12.84 kg). Participants completed 2 counterbalanced sessions within 7 days. Each session consisted of 1 exercise protocol followed by postexercise measures of postural control taken at 3-, 8-, 13-, and 18-minute time intervals. Baseline measures were established during the first session, before the specified exertion protocol was performed. Balance Error Scoring System (BESS) results, sway velocity, and elliptical sway area. We found a decrease in postural control after each exercise protocol for all dependent measures. An interaction was noted between exercise protocol and time for total BESS score (P = .002). For both exercise protocols, all measures of postural control returned to baseline within 13 minutes. Postural control was negatively affected after anaerobic and aerobic exercise protocols as measured by total BESS score, elliptical sway area, and sway velocity. The effect of exertion lasted up to 13 minutes after each exercise was completed. Certified athletic trainers and clinicians should be aware of these effects and their recovery time course when determining an appropriate time to administer sideline assessments of postural control after a suspected mild traumatic brain injury.

The Relationship Between Body Mass Index, Body Weight Perception, and Menstrual Cycle in Female Athletes

Body mass index (BMI) has been used as a simple measure to assess levels of obesity in various populations. The accuracy of the formula has been questioned increasingly over the past years particularly as it relates to special populations such as children, elderly, and athletes. The relationship between this measurement and a female's perceived ideal body weight (P-IBW) has not been assessed in college-aged athletes, nor has it been correlated to the habits of one's menstrual cycle. PURPOSE: To identify the relationship between BMI, ideal body weight perception, and menstrual habits in college-aged athletes. METHODS: A convenient sample of 208 female student athletes (18-23, average 20.1 years) at a division one university took part in pre-participation physical examinations that included a medical history questionnaire. Height and weight measurements taken by certified athletic trainers, and answers to the questions completed by each student athlete pertaining to 1) what each person perceived as his/her ideal body weight, and 2) whether or not one was currently experiencing a normal menstrual cycle or not were retrospectively analyzed. RESULTS: Differences were calculated between actual body weight (ABW) and P-IBW for all subjects (−6.2 lbs, range −48 to 22). Overall BMI measurements were recorded as 84.5% normal, 0.3% underweight, 15.1% over weight, and 0.1% obese. Twenty-one (10.0%) subjects reported an irregular and/or absent menstrual cycle, 25% of whom were considered over weight. Correlations were low for both subjects with normal BMI whose P-IBW was within 5 pounds of their ABW (r = .68) and those with normal BMI whose P-IBW was greater than 5 pounds (+/−) of their P-IBW (r = .71). CONCLUSION: The results of this study do not suggest a correlation between body mass index, actual and perceived body weight, and menstrual cycle patterns in collegeaged female student athletes.

Effects of Dynamic Head Tilts on Sensory Organization Test Performance: A Comparison Between College-Age Athletes and Nonathletes

Controlled laboratory study. To compare postural performance measures of athletes with those of nonathletes when completing the standard Sensory Organization Test (SOT) and a modified SOT that included dynamic head tilts (DHT-SOT). Authors of recently published research have suggested that modifications to the SOT protocol (eg, introduction of pitch and roll head tilts) may enhance the test's sensitivity when assessing postural stability in individuals with higher balance capabilities or with well-compensated sensory deficits. Nineteen athletes and 19 nonathletes (group) completed both the SOT and DHT-SOT (protocol). During the SOT, participants stood upright as steadily as possible for 20 seconds during each of 6 different sensory conditions. As a variation of the SOT, the DHT-SOT incorporated active pitch and roll head tilts into the SOT protocol. Four 2-way mixed-model analyses of variance (with protocol as the repeated factor) were performed to determine if the composite equilibrium score or the visual, vestibular, or somatosensory ratio scores differed between the 2 groups across the 2 testing protocols. Significant group-by-protocol interaction effects were present for both the composite equilibrium score and visual ratio. Follow-up simple main-effects analyses indicated that these measures did not differ between groups for the SOT protocol but were significantly different on the DHT-SOT. The addition of dynamic head tilts to the SOT protocol resulted in subtle differences in balance function between athletes and nonathletes. Athletes demonstrated an increased ability to adapt to sensory disruptions during the DHT-SOT. Therapists should consider including active pitch and roll head tilts to the SOT when evaluating individuals with higher balance function or to detect subtle deficits in balance function. Diagnosis, level 3b.

Is Sport Dangerous for Children?

Daniel De Wolf Ghent University Hospital, Department of Pediatric Cardiology, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Gent, Belgium Tel.: +32 9332 2421; Fax: +32 9332 3856; E-mail: daniel.dewolf@ ugent.be ‘The long-term beneficial effects of regular physical training by far outweigh the acute risk for sudden death in children.’ Recently, promoting physical activity in children has received much emphasis. The medical community, but also the general population, has gained conscience that physical activity offers an important shortand long-term contribution to children’s health [1]. Even in high-risk groups, such as in children with congenital heart disease, the beneficial effects of a guided sports program have been proven [2]. Guidelines for safe participation of patients with congenital heart disease in competitive sports have been established [3]. The only real drawback to vigorously promoting exercise in all children is the constant sword of Damocles, the risk of sudden death during exercise. Although rare, every event of sudden death in an apparently healthy youngster during sports is a disaster to parents and friends, which is emphasized by the immediate and mostly spectacular media coverage, thus making a deep and frightening impression on the general public. Regularly, it is questioned as to why the thorough screening of young athletes, and especially children, is not recommended and the community calls for action. After such incidents, the amount of parents self-referred to pediatric cardiologists in order to obtain ‘complete’ reassurance that their child can safely practice sports, increases dramatically. But can we really prevent sudden death in children practicing sports? And if so, then how? And to what cost? Should we limit these efforts to those engaged in competitive sports? To answer these questions, one should be aware of the real importance of the problem. Although each sudden and unexpected death of a child is absolutely devastating to parents and the community, the real incidence appears to be low. The precise frequency of sudden cardiac death during competition or training is not known, but has been estimated to be between one per 200,000 and one per 300,000 high school and college-aged athletes per year [4]. The incidence in children below the age of 16 years participating in sports is probably even lower [5]. The most common causes of exercise-related cardiac death in individuals under 35 years of age are hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia (ARVD, especially in Italy), myocarditis, contusio cordis, abnormal coronary artery anatomy, toxic drugs and rhythm disturbances [6,7]. For the first two anomalies (HCM and ARVD), the incidence and mortality are lower in the pediatric population when compared with adults [6]. Although sudden deaths occur during or after exercise in these anomalies, this does not appear to be the most important trigger for sudden death in children overall [5,8].

The association between regional body composition and metabolic outcomes in athletes with spinal cord injury

Cross-sectional study comparing athletes with spinal cord injury (SCI) and age and body mass index matched able-bodied controls (AB). To examine the impact of exercise training on the relation between whole body, regional and intermuscular adipose tissue (IMAT) and glucose tolerance, insulin action and lipid profile. University Research Laboratory, USA. Fourteen college-aged athletes with SCI (seven men; duration of injury 16.5+/-5.7 years, level of injury T5-L5) and 17 sedentary AB (eight men) were assessed for body composition via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and magnetic resonance imaging. Insulin sensitivity index (ISI) was determined via 2-h oral glucose challenge; standard lipid profile was determined from fasting blood samples. Although ISI was 30% higher in SCI, there were no significant differences between groups in glucose and insulin responses or in lipid measures. Adjusting for absolute and relative thigh IMAT area, fasting insulin (13.8+/-5.3 microIU, 16.3+/-5.6 microIU; P<0.05; SCI vs AB respectively) and ISI (4.0+/-1.4, 3.1+/-1.3; P<0.05) were significantly better among SCI athletes compared to AB. Measures of adiposity did not correlate with glucose response or most lipid measures. Within SCI and AB, respectively, ISI correlated strongly (all P<0.05) with absolute (r = -0.70, -0.54) and relative IMAT (r = -0.54, -0.50), than with trunk (r = -0.62, -0.64) and whole body fat mass (r = -0.61, -0.64). Habitual physical activity can maintain insulin sensitivity in SCI compared to sedentary AB controls. Total body fat mass, central adiposity and thigh IMAT appear to impact risk for metabolic disease in SCI individuals with IMAT playing a larger role in SCI than AB.

Body Mass Index as a Predictor of Percent Fat in College Athletes and Nonathletes

Body mass index (BMI) is used as a surrogate for percent fat (% fat) in classifying obesity. However, there is no established criterion for % fat and health risk, and few studies have examined the accuracy/validity of BMI as a measure of % fat. By default, BMI is used to classify athletes and young adults as obese. Consequently, it is critical to understand the accuracy of BMI in these populations. The purposes of this study were 1) to describe the relationship between BMI and % fat, and 2) to determine the accuracy of BMI as a measure of % fat in college athletes and nonathletes. A total of 226 college-aged athletes and 213 college-aged nonathletes participated. Three male groups (athletes, football linemen, and nonathletes) and two female groups (athletes and nonathletes) were created. BMI was calculated. Percent fat was determined via BOD POD. BMI >or= 25 kg.m(-2) was used to define overweight. Twenty percent fat for males and 33% fat for females were used to define overfatness. Using % fat as the criterion, sensitivity and specificity of BMI were calculated. Receiver operator characteristic curves determined optimal BMI cut points for % fat. Sensitivity was high (0.83-1.0) and specificity was low (0.27-0.66) in male athletes, male nonathletes, and female athletes. Sensitivity was high in linemen (1.0). Sensitivity was low (0.56) and specificity was high (0.90) in female nonathletes. Optimal BMI cut points for male athletes, linemen, male nonathletes, female athletes, and female nonathletes were 27.9, 34.1, 26.5, 27.7, and 24.0 kg.m(-2), respectively. BMI should be used cautiously when classifying fatness in college athletes and nonathletes. Our results support the need for different BMI classifications of overweight in these populations.

Swing Tempo And Lateral And Anterior/posterior Weight Shift Comparisons In Golfers Grouped By Skill Level

PURPOSE The importance of proper weight shift and tempo during the golf swing is frequently addressed in articles published in popular magazines and books with little supportive scientic data. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to compare center of gravity (CG) movement and swing tempo among college golfers with selected skill levels while using three separate clubs. METHODS Methods: Twenty-eight college-aged athletes who had qualified for the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) National Tournament in 2003 volunteered for the study and were grouped based on their average competitive golf scores for the previous season (Range = 70–75): Group 1 = 70–71 (n=9), Group 2 = 72–73 (n=7), Group 3 = 74–75 (n=12). Following warm-up ad libitum, subjects performed five swings each with a pitching wedge (PW), 5-iron (51), and driver (DR) in random order in a laboratory environment. For each swing a specialized force platform recorded movement patterns of the golfers' CG on a reference quadrant providing both visual and digital data of lateral deviation (Dx) and anterior/posterior deviation (Dy) from the origin. Swing tempo was recorded from the onset of the approach (reverse in lateral shift) to ball contact. Statistical analyses included ANOVA and Levene's test of homogeneity. RESULTS Results: Results indicated that mean Dx was significantly greater for DR than the other clubs and for Group 1, mean Dx was significantly greater than for Groups 2 and 3. Also, Group 1 recorded significantly greater consistency (less variance) in Dx movement than Groups 2 and 3. No differences in either weight shift means or variance were found for Dy deviation among the groups. Swing tempo was significantly longer and swing tempo consistency was significantly greater for Group 1 in comparison to Groups 2 and 3. CONCLUSIONS Conclusions: These data indicate that success in the game of golf may be more dependent on individual consistency rather than individual differences in weight shift and swing tempo.

ACUTE NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF PARTICIPATION IN AN AMATEUR BOXING TOURNAMENT

PURPOSE to determine if subconcussive head trauma sustained in a strictly supervised collegiate amateur boxing tournament over a seven day period results in decline of neuropsychological testing (NT) performance. METHODS 82 boxers participated in this prospective study and boxed in 159 matches. All subjects completed baseline and post bout NT utilizing the CogSport computerized testing platform. Baseline tests were compared to a large normative database of college aged athletes. A total of 142 post bout tests were obtained. 32 boxers competed once and took one post bout test, 22 boxers competed twice and took two post bout tests, 22 competed at least three times and completed three tests. Post bout tests were compared to baseline tests and to previously completed post bout tests. A group of 28 boxers deemed to be “hi risk” for head trauma because of in ring events were analyzed separately. RESULTS The NT performance of boxers competing in 3 bouts was equivalent to boxers competing in one or two bouts. Mean group scores demonstrated no significant change from baseline in any of the cognitive tests measured. Within the hi-risk group, there was a subtle decline in cognitive performance in boxers whose matches were stopped by the referee (n=7). However, when analyzed individually, there was no change in cognitive performance compared to baseline. CONCLUSION Subconcussive head trauma sustained as a consequence of participation in a seven day strictly supervised boxing tournament does not cause declines in NT performance.