Collective Security Treaty Organization Research Articles

Formation of the Information and Psychological Security System of the Collective Security Treaty Organization

Formation of the Information and Psychological Security System of the Collective Security Treaty Organization

Quashing protests abroad: The CSTO’s intervention in Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT The Collective Security Treaty Organization’s military intervention in Kazakhstan in January 2022 quashed the unfolding nonviolent protest movement in the country. Nonetheless, the intervention raised few concerns with regard to the prohibition of the use of force in international law. Among states and scholars, the invitation issued by the Kazakh president was regarded as sufficient to justify the intervention. This article critically assesses this understanding. The intervening states limited the Kazakh people’s right to self-determination and violated protesters’ human rights. Against this backdrop, the authors develop an argument for why international law prohibits states from intervening in another state in order to quash nonviolent protest movements. While the intervention in Kazakhstan serves as the primary example, the argument also applies more broadly and is of particular importance as nonviolent protest movements have a central role in spreading democracy and advancing human rights.

2022 January Events and CSTO Peacekeeping Mission in Kazakhstan

In January 2022, Kazakhstan was faced with an attempt of a violent change of power in the form of mass protests that spread throughout the country and were organized with the basic techniques of color revolutions. The country’s own law enforcement forces were not able to cope with radical citizens, looters-rioters, and terrorists, and in these circumstances the head of state, K.K. Tokayev, decided to request the support of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) allies, who immediately sent the united peacekeeping troops to the republic. The CSTO peacekeeping mission, coordinated by Russia, successfully restored constitutional order in the country and prevented a violent coup d’état. The purpose of this research is to analyze the course of the January events and actions of the CSTO, as well as their impact on Kazakhstan, the region and the organization itself. The paper is based on interviews with experts from the CSTO member states, studies carried out in this area of research, and statements by official authorities. The synthesis of the research results is divided into thematic blocks and supplemented by the author’s conclusions. The paper mentions aspects such as the transition of power, changes in Kazakhstan’s domestic and foreign policies, the effectiveness of the CSTO organization and the expansion of its potential use. Proposals are also provided regarding the strengthening of defense integration and the need to develop a common regional identity. The research is unique in that it brings expert opinions from six CSTO member states, the results of studies carried out by researchers from Russia, Kazakhstan, and abroad, and the theoretical terminology of Western political ideology. The author presents the area of responsibility of the CSTO as a Eurasian security community based not only on collective security, but also on economic interdependence and a sense of community among the nations of its member states.

Collective security treaty organization

The collapse of the Soviet Union left behind an enormous territorial space, divided between 15 republics that declared their independence, forced to promptly respond to all challenges, especially those related to security, or the issue of ensuring the national security of the states always being the center of attention of the military and political leadership from all countries without exception. Thus, the states were faced with the choice, either to develop their own defense mechanisms, or to join forces to ensure their national security on a collective basis. This study aims to elucidate the premises and stages of the creation of the Collective Security Treaty Organization, as well as to analyze the role of this organization in terms of ensuring the collective security of the member states. At the same time, the objectives and principles governing the organization’s activity are presented.

Military intervention as a spectacle? Authoritarian regionalism and protests in Kazakhstan

Abstract Understanding the scope and the limits of cooperation of authoritarian regimes is important to assess their ability to support each other and strengthen authoritarian rule worldwide. While there is substantial evidence of authoritarian regimes working together to ensure mutual stability, autocracies are also notoriously mistrustful of one another. Therefore, they prefer to limit the assistance from other autocracies to rhetoric, to avoid the emergence of excessive dependencies. The conditions under which authoritarian cooperation goes beyond rhetoric, and even takes such extreme forms as military interventions, are insufficiently studied. The article investigates the case of the Collective Security Treaty Organization's (CSTO) intervention in Kazakhstan in 2022 as an example of an authoritarian regional organization sending a military mission to one of its member states. Using process tracing and carefully investigating the available evidence on the role of CSTO forces in Kazakhstan, we show that their intervention was more of symbolic importance than having an actual military role, and precisely for that reason it was acceptable to the leadership of Kazakhstan and other CSTO countries. The balance of power in central Asia (and in particular the role of China) ensured the credibility of commitment of the CSTO to keep its mission a symbolic one.

Незаконный оборот наркотиков в регионе ответственности государств – членов Организации Договора о коллективной безопасности как самостоятельный вид преступности

Introduction. The article provides criminological characteristics of drug trafficking in the region of responsibility of the member states of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (hereinafter referred to as the Organization, the CSTO). This characteristic reflects one of the main criminological problems - constantly growing drug trafficking, the source of which is the territory of Afghanistan. It is indicated that the Organization is an important actor of international law enforcement activities that counteract the illicit trafficking of narcotic drugs of Afghan origin. The article reveals the peculiarities of drug trafficking in the region of responsibility of the CSTO member states.
 Methods. The methodological basis of this study was formed by such methods as formal-logical, sociological, statistical, historical and scientific interpretation of the crime model proposed by D.A. Shestakov.
 Results. According to the results of the study, the author proposes the concept of «drug crime in the region of responsibility of the CSTO member states» and indicates the danger of drug trafficking (drug crime) as a socio and legal phenomenon in this region. Based on the multilevel model of understanding crime («Shestakov funnel»), the author’s dynamic model of the «funnel» of drug crimes in this region, which consists of five levels and three trends, is proposed. The proposed model of drug crimes has a dynamic character and may vary depending on the period under review. The results of the study can also be used by law enforcement officers and scientists dealing with this issue. The identified features contribute to understanding the directions of preventive impact on the considered type of crime.

Cybercrimes: Concept, Сlassification, International Countering

Introduction . In the criminal law doctrine, in the legislative sources and internationally recognised official documents there exist different approaches to defining the concepts of “cyber criminality” and “cybercrime”, different nomenclatures and classifications of these criminal actions are proposed. These discrepancies negatively influence the efficiency of the fight against this type of crime. The transboundary nature of cybercrimes and interrelation between the information and telecommunication technologies and the information infrastructures (Internet) testify that efficient provision of cybersecurity is possible only on condition of the international cooperation in this field. This implies development of the unified approach to defining the cybercrimes concept and nomenclature and extension of cooperation between the countries in detecting, suppressing, solving and investigating the cybercrimes. The aim of the study is to define the concept of “cyber criminality”, to consider cybercrimes classification and to develop proposals for improving the legal regulation in the field of cybercrime countering. Materials and Methods . The object of the study is social relations in the field of cybercrime countering. In the course of the study, the legal methodology was used, including general as well as special scientific methods. Results . The article formulates the authors’ definition of the term “cyber criminality”, defines the theoretical and practical significance of the cybercrimes classification based on the grounds of such notions as: object of criminal encroachment; the subject of the crime; the method and means of committing the crime. Striving to enhance the cyber criminality countering efficiency, the concrete proposals are made to reform the Russian and the international criminal legislation, to establish international cooperation within the framework of the UN, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), the Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO), BRICS. Discussion and Conclusions . The conclusions, suggestions and recommendations formulated in the course of the study have certain theoretical significance as they can become the basis for further studies of the cyber criminality phenomenon in the frame of the criminal law and criminology, as well as have practical significance for improving the cybercrime countering practices and enhancing efficiency of the relevant criminal legislation.

Институциональные реформы в условиях этнокультурной разделенности и неконсолидированных границ: опыт Киргизии

The study investigated the role and the capacity of institutional reforms in mitigating chronic political instability in Kyrgyzstan, which often manifests itself in mass protests, ethnopolitical conflicts and border disputes. Combining macro-historical, macro-sociological and institutional approaches into a research framework allowed the authors to focus on such root causes of instability as ethnocultural divides and unconsolidated centers and borders. The analysis of the institutional reforms with pro-democratic and pro-authoritarian models led to the conclusion that with the current general lack of material and financial resources the political system responds rather weakly to any institutional changes while the expectations and orientations of the society are rather flexible. Thus, the situation suggests a rather pragmatic approach in strengthening the cooperation with Russia on bilateral basis as well as within such regional organizations as the Eurasian Economic Union, Shanghai Cooperation Organization and Collective Security Treaty Organization rather than choosing a multivector foreign policy that is currently declared by the Kyrgyz elites.

On the role of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and ensuring security and support for Armenia as its signatory during the ongoing armed conflict with Azerbaijan

The article describes the conflict between the Republic of Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, two Caucasian states with the so-called the region of Nagorno-Karabakh, which is part of Azerbaijan, inhabited and ruled for many years by Armenians. In addition to a more detailed approximation of the background of the conflict and the current role of international organizations in its resolution, the article discusses the circumstances of the creation and history of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), which was established, among other things, to prevent and resolve conflicts among its signatories, including Armenia and Azerbaijan. The article makes a legal classification of Azerbaijan’s aggression against Armenia as a violation of the OBUZ treaty regulations and presents the legal consequences of this. It also contains a negative assessment of the current role of CSTO in settling the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan and a negative assessment of the Treaty’s real capacity to fulfill its functions, especially in the light of the current international situation and the current political situation in Armenia.

Criminal law of the member states of the Collective Security Treaty Organization: comparative legal analysis

Criminal law of the member states of the Collective Security Treaty Organization: comparative legal analysis

The Future of the Collective Security Treaty Organization in the Context of NATO Enlargement and the Kazakhstan Protests

1991 yılında Sovyetlerin dağılması ile Rusya, Bağımsız Devletler Topluluğu (BDT), Kolektif Güvenlik Antlaşması Örgütü (KGAÖ) gibi siyasi, askeri ve ekonomik oluşumlar yoluyla eski Sovyet coğrafyasında bağımsızlığını kazanan ülkeleri etki alanında tutmaya çalışmıştır. Bölgedeki nüfuzunu kaybetmenin küresel alandaki konumunu zayıflatacağını bilen Moskova, bu ülkelerin Batılı kurum ve kuruluşlarla entegre olmasını istememiştir. Nitekim son yıllarda Gürcistan ve Ukrayna’nın olası NATO üyeliklerine engel olmak için her türlü girişimde bulunulmuş ve en uzun sınırı paylaştığı Kazakistan’da yaşanan olaylara uzun yıllar etkinsizliği ile eleştirilen KGAÖ aracılığıyla müdahale etmiştir. 
 Rusya’nın Şubat 2022’de Ukrayna’yı işgalinden sonra Finlandiya ve İsveç, uzun yıllardır benimsedikleri askeri tarafsızlığı terk ederek NATO'ya üyelik başvurusu yapmayı kararlaştırmıştır. Bu kapsamda Rusya-Ukrayna Savaşı yeni üyelikleri gündeme getirerek NATO’nun genişlemesine yönelik bir durum ortaya çıkarırken Orta Asya ve Kafkasya bölgesindeki gelişmeler benzer bir ihtimalin KGAÖ için de söz konusu olabileceğine işaret etmektedir. Öyle ki, NATO gibi açık kapı politikası uygulayan KGAÖ’ne zaman zaman İran’ın üye olacağına yönelik açıklamalar gündeme gelmektedir. Yine Avrasya Ekonomik Birliği’ne gözlemci üye olması sonrasında Özbekistan, 2021 yılında Rusya ile ikili bir askeri tatbikat ve Rusya ve Tacikistan ile üçlü bir askeri tatbikat gerçekleştirmiştir. Bunun yanında aynı yıl çevrimiçi formatta gerçekleştirilen KGAÖ toplantısına Özbekistan Cumhurbaşkanı Şövket Mirziyoyev konuk olarak katılmıştır. Kazakistan’da yaşanan olaylar nedeni ile gerçekleştirilen olağanüstü toplantıda Belarus Cumhurbaşkanı Aleksandr Lukaşenko’nun olayların Özbekistan’a sıçraması ihtimali olduğunu ifade etmesi ise Taşkent’in 2012 yılında askıya aldığı üyeliğini önümüzdeki günlerde yeniden aktifleştirebilir mi sorusunun ortaya çıkmasına neden olmuştur.
 Çalışmanın temel tezi NATO’nun genişlemesinin ve Kazakistan olaylarının KGAÖ’nün faaliyet alanlarını genişletebileceği ve yeni üyelikleri gündeme getirebileceğidir. Bu kapsamda çalışma Avrasya’nın NATO’su olarak addedilen KGAÖ’nün 30 yıllık serüvenine odaklanmaktadır. Çalışmada örgütün yapısı, işleyişi ve faaliyetleri üzerinde durulmuş ve özellikle son gelişmeler ışığında KGAÖ’nün etkinliği ve geleceği değerlendirilmiştir.

Collective Security Treaty Organization: Realities and Perspectives of Crisis Response

This study is aimed at studying the key problem of regional security — crisis response within the framework of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO).Aim. Show that despite the development of the crisis mechanism, its current state does not satisfy the member states, which affects the overall security of the Eurasian space.Tasks. Consider the stages of development of crisis management through the prism of the development of the formation of the CSTO as an organization designed to ensure security in two directions: military security and countering “new challenges”.Methods. To compare the mechanisms for countering crises, the method of comparative analysis is used, including the provisions of international treaties, as well as successful and unsuccessful practices in the CIS and the CSTO.Results. Based on specific examples of activities and study of the decisions taken by the governing bodies of the CSTO, it is shown that the improvement of the direction of crisis management will become the main one in the development of the Organization.

International Law in Central Asia: Practices and Doctrines

Abstract Since their independence in 1991, the states of Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) have become increasingly important as regional and international actors. They have joined the United Nations (UN) as well as regional organizations, such as the Commonwealth of Independent States (cis), the Collective Security Treaty Organization (csto), the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (sco), and the Eurasian Economic Union (eaeu). International law has played an important role in the processes of state-building and integration these countries have undergone, yet it has not always been consistently accepted as a policy tool and academic discipline. In particular, building a stable nexus between the practice of international law and academic research on the subject remains a challenge. This article provides an overview of Central Asian practices and doctrines of international law with a focus on international peace and security, international organizations, international environmental law, human rights, international humanitarian and criminal law, and international investment arbitration. It concludes with recommendations for more successful promotion and implementation of international law in the region.

О роли региональных международных организаций безопасности в противодействии терроризму (на примере Организации Договора о коллективной безопасности)

The article is devoted to the consideration of issues of countering international and regional terrorism through the use of such an institution as a regional international security organization – the Collective Security Treaty Organization. A brief description of modern terrorism and terrorist manifestations in the Central Asian region is given, taking into account the current situation in Afghanistan in the late 20th – early 21st centuries. In historical retrospect, the factors that influenced the growth of terrorist activity are analyzed. The reasons for the creation of a regional international security organization – the Collective Security Treaty Organization, the main provisions of its Charter, especially those related to countering terrorist threats, are investigated. Using the example of the CSTO collective rapid response forces conducting a counter-terrorism operation in Kazakhstan in January 2022, the features of such an interstate type of operational combat event are investigated. Other options for the creation of inter-state antiterrorism units have been studied using the example of the European ATLAS. The main directions of the development of the CSTO in countering terrorism in the region of the Organization’s member states have been identified. The factors that will contribute to improving the effectiveness of the anti-terrorist measures taken to maintain stability in the region, as well as the main determinants of regional terrorism, are identified. The threats of a terrorist nature for the CSTO member states and options for their minimization and elimination through the use of CSTO forces and means are outlined.

Role of the CSTO in Promotion of Collective Security

This article presented to the attention of readers is dedicated to the analysis of history, present condition and development prospects of inter-state relations on national and regional security between former Soviet republics, now new sovereign Eurasian states, as well as to the examination of organization forms of such relations. Having formulated basic principles of cooperation on these issues and underlying the need of collective and coordinated activities against threats to their security and stability in new geopolitical realities stipulated by the collapse of the USSR nine post-Soviet states concluded the Collective Security Treaty which came into force in 1994. Five years later, in April 1999, presidents of six these countries, namely Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan, signed the protocol on prolongation of the Collective Security Treaty for the next five years while Azerbaijan, Georgia and Uzbekistan refused to extend their membership in the Treaty and left it. It happened since due to a number of various domestic and external reasons the formation of national statehood of new sovereign states began to differ substantially from each other as to their strategic goals, aspirations and orientations which subsequently caused serious changes in their approaches to building relations with their foreign partners in bilateral and multilateral forms. In this connection in May 2002 those countries that retained their membership in the Collective Security Treaty decided to reorganize it into a new alliance with a higher degree of integration of its members in order to increase its role in promoting national and regional security – the Collective Security Treaty Organization. The present article examines basic events connected with the Collective Security Treaty Organization formation over the next 20 years, evolution of its goals and tasks, as well as requirements of making concrete directions of its activities more precise because of fundamental changes in the international environment. In the course of the undertaken analysis most important achievements of the Collective Security Treaty Organization during these years were singled out as well as concrete shortcomings in its activities were noted. Also, alternative variants of further development of this international security organization including those that may exceed the post-Soviet space were mentioned.

Study of Russian Security Activities in Central Asia under Collective Security Treaty Organization

Central Asia has become a focal point for Russia due to its strategic importance and enhanced Russia’s position into world politics. Aim of this research is to analyse the Russia-Central Asia political and security relations under Collective Security Treaty Organization. To regain its lost hegemony, Russia established intergovernmental organizations in which Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) plays significant role to secure Russian security interests in the region. The whole analysis reflects that Central Asia’s geographical importance has not disappeared but enhanced more than before. Although Russian monopoly has been replaced by the other players in the region, like USA, China and Europe but its influences and interests are still present in political and security fields. Qualitative and content analysis method has been used to examine the research. Questions are addressed in regard to Russian military activity under the CSTO and Russian impact on the political and security situation of Central Asia.

Perception by Russian Social Media Users of Mass Protests During the Attempted Coup in Kazakhstan

The article presents the results of an applied political research on the representation of the 2022 Kazakh events in the Russian segment of social media. The context of the study stems from the significant intersection of the Russian and Kazakh segments of social media and the mutual influence of political processes. Under the political mobilization of the mass protests in Kazakhstan, which turned into an attempted coup, the activities of Russian counterelites intensified in various regions of Russia. Using a hybrid research strategy combined with cognitive mapping and social media analysis the authors managed to identify dynamic, structural and substantive characteristics of the information representation of the Kazakh events in the Russian segment of the Internet. The authors concluded that the scale of the Kazakh protests allowed to draw the short-term interest of the Russian audience, mainly from the regions bordering Kazakhstan. The use of economic triggers (rising prices, inefficient social policy, etc.) led to the involvement of the adult audience in the discussions around the Kazakh events, while a significant part of youth and young adults was excluded from information flows around the events. The study revealed that the Russian opposition attempted to use manipulative “contamination” technology in order to extrapolate the political and economic discontent in Kazakhstan to the situation in Russia. At the same time, the greatest resonance in the Russian segment of users was caused directly by the participation of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) in the settlement, and not by the social and economic triggers that led to the events.

Narcotic and its Effects on Central Asia

Drug trafficking has created many problems for the Central Asian republics and caused significant human and financial losses. The high profit and prosperity of this trade has caused terrorist and extremist religious groups in this region to move in this direction in order to consolidate their power and buy the weapons they need to use. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of drug trafficking and the resulting organized crime in a descriptive-analytical manner and to obtain the required information from articles-books in this context, the main research question is: What effect can Narcotics have on the Central Asian countries? Findings from the research show that the use of extremist religious groups - which exist in most Central Asian countries - has posed a threat to the economic, political, security and social dimensions. Thus the Central Asian republics in order to control and management of these problems seeks to expand in the form of regional and trans-regional organizations, including the Central Asian Cooperation Organization, the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Collective Security Treaty Organization and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, as well as the ECO to resolve tensions.

Cooperation between Russia and Kazakhstan as a Vector of Eurasian Integration

The study analyzes the areas of cooperation between Russia and Kazakhstan within the framework of Eurasian integration.Aim. To identify the presence of factors contributing to the strengthening of relations between Russia and Kazakhstan at the present stage and obstacles hindering the deepening of integration processes.Tasks. To analyze the current state of cooperation between the two countries within the framework of the Eurasian Union, to identify obstacles to deepening integration processes, to show forecast scenarios of interaction between Russia and Kazakhstan. To analyze how these scenarios will affect the relationship between the two countries, and what consequences will be if each of them is implemented.Methods. The article uses general scientific methods of analysis and synthesis, a systematic approach, as well as an empirical method of expert evaluation.Results. The study showed that there are strong relations between the two countries in the economic sphere within the framework of the EAEU. Russia is the main trading partner of Kazakhstan. Projects related to the Caspian Sea are being developed and look very promising. Joint military exercises and supplies of Russian weapons are of great interest to Kazakhstan. Russia acts as a guarantor of Kazakhstan’s security in the region and its main partner in the Eurasian space. The Collective Security Treaty Organization also plays an important role in the relations between the two countries, which proved its effectiveness in the January 2022 events, contributing to the resolution of the political crisis and preventing extremist actions of armed terrorist groups. At the same time, the role of Kazakhstan as its closest neighbor and ally is also important for Russia, especially in the context of escalating international tensions.Conclusions. Both Russia and Kazakhstan are interested in further cooperation in the economic, military and cultural spheres. At the same time, the further deepening of integration processes is hindered by the absence of large joint investment projects and the multi-vector nature of Kazakhstan’s foreign policy. In the context of the information war of the West against Russia and the increasing international tension, it is extremely important to deepen cooperation between the two countries.

Issues for the Participation of the Republic of Belarus in the Institutional Mechanism for Combating International Cybercrime

The exponential growth of computer and digital technology in the 21st century creates broad opportunities for human societies, such as increased mobility, ease of communication, political participation and access to information. Yet it has also given rise to a new type of criminal activity, broadly defi ned as cybercrime. The author considers the regional cooperation of law enforcement agencies in combating cybercrime via multilateral organisations such as the Collective Security Treaty Organization and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Several mechanisms of cooperation with the member states of these organisations are identifi ed. The author presents an argument for modernisation and harmonisation of the international legal frameworks for fi ghting organized crime and other forms of criminal activity aff ecting the member states. A case is also made for the establishment of the specialised unit in the structure of Coordination Bureau for Organised Crime Control in the Commonwealth of Independent States countries.