Cold Episodes Research Articles

A cold wave of winter 2021 in central South America: characteristics and impacts.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00382-023-06701-1.

Comparison of Arctic and Antarctic Stratospheric Climates in Chemistry Versus No‐Chemistry Climate Models

AbstractUsing nine chemistry‐climate and eight associated no‐chemistry models, we investigate the persistence and timing of cold episodes occurring in the Arctic and Antarctic stratosphere during the period 1980–2014. We find systematic differences in behavior between members of these model pairs. In a first group of chemistry models whose dynamical configurations mirror their no‐chemistry counterparts, we find an increased persistence of such cold polar vortices, such that these cold episodes often start earlier and last longer, relative to the times of occurrence of the lowest temperatures. Also the date of occurrence of the lowest temperatures, both in the Arctic and the Antarctic, is often delayed by 1–3 weeks in chemistry models, versus their no‐chemistry counterparts. This behavior exacerbates a widespread problem occurring in most or all models, a delayed occurrence, in the median, of the most anomalously cold day during such cold winters. In a second group of model pairs there are differences beyond just ozone chemistry. In particular, here the chemistry models feature more levels in the stratosphere, a raised model top, and differences in non‐orographic gravity wave drag versus their no‐chemistry counterparts. Such additional dynamical differences can completely mask the above influence of ozone chemistry. The results point toward a need to retune chemistry‐climate models versus their no‐chemistry counterparts.

A terrestrial record of climate variation during MIS 11 through multiproxy palaeotemperature reconstructions from Hoxne, UK

AbstractA terrestrial (lacustrine and fluvial) palaeoclimate record from Hoxne (Suffolk, UK) shows two temperate phases separated by a cold episode, correlated with MIS 11 subdivisions corresponding to isotopic events 11.3 (Hoxnian interglacial period), 11.24 (Stratum C cold interval), and 11.23 (warm interval with evidence of human presence). A robust, reproducible multiproxy consensus approach validates and combines quantitative palaeotemperature reconstructions from three invertebrate groups (beetles, chironomids, and ostracods) and plant indicator taxa with qualitative implications of molluscs and small vertebrates. Compared with the present, interglacial mean monthly air temperatures were similar or up to 4.0°C higher in summer, but similar or as much as 3.0°C lower in winter; the Stratum C cold interval, following prolonged nondeposition or erosion of the lake bed, experienced summers 2.5°C cooler and winters between 5°C and 10°C cooler than at present. Possible reworking of fossils into Stratum C from underlying interglacial assemblages is taken into account. Oxygen and carbon isotopes from ostracod shells indicate evaporatively enriched lake water during Stratum C deposition. Comparative evaluation shows that proxy-based palaeoclimate reconstruction methods are best tested against each other and, if validated, can be used to generate more refined and robust results through multiproxy consensus.

Early Holocene palaeoceanographic and glaciological changes in southeast Greenland

Sediment core ER11-16 from Køge Bugt in Southeast Greenland is used to assess early Holocene palaeoceanographic changes and sediment rafting from icebergs calved from the large outlet glaciers in the area. Diatom analysis reconstructs variability in surface water temperature, salinity and sea-ice concentrations, and benthic foraminiferal assemblages is used to reconstruct subsurface ocean conditions. We report Holocene Thermal Maximum in Southeast Greenland during the early Holocene (at least since onset of the record 9100 cal yr BP) until around 4500 cal yr BP, which contrasts with a delay until the mid-Holocene of the Holocene Thermal Maximum in South and Southwest Greenland. The early Holocene warming in Southeast Greenland was caused by a combination of high solar insolation and a weakened subpolar gyre, both of which served to warm the Irminger Current waters subducting onto the shelf. At the same time, the surface temperature was relatively high and sea-ice cover in the polar surface waters of the East Greenland Current was relatively low. High levels of iceberg rafting occurred in Køge Bugt during the early Holocene, synchronously with these warm oceanic temperatures. This is attributed to an increase in iceberg production from the extensive, but retreating, Greenland Ice Sheet. The warm surface conditions were interrupted by a marked and short-lived increase in sea ice around 8200 years ago, providing the first evidence of this global cold episode in Southeast Greenland. After 4500 cal. yr BP, sea-ice cover increased with an expansion of the East Greenland Current, suppressing the inflow of warmer subsurface Irminger Current water to the Southeast Greenland shelf. We relate this oceanic shift to the decreased Northern Hemisphere summer solar insolation. Multi-centennial variability is observed in the grain size spectrum of iceberg rafted debris; a finding we interpret in the context of palaeoceanographic changes.

Influence of the Ural High on Air Temperatures over Eastern Europe and Northern China during Extended Winter

Abstract The anticyclonic anomaly over the Ural Mountains, or the Ural high (UH), has recently received much attention as a factor related to weather anomalies across Eurasia. Here we studied how the UH affects the occurrence of cold wintertime episodes over eastern Europe and northern China. By employing three methods to identify the UH, we found that a method based on the sea level pressure anomaly captures a stronger cooling signal over eastern Europe and this method includes nonblocking cases associated with low-level anticyclones that do not affect the upper troposphere. However, with UH occurrence, a stronger cooling over northern China is detected by a method based on 500-hPa geopotential height fields. Cold events over eastern Europe typically occur when UH formation is associated with a Rossby wave breaking in the upper level. Our results show that the horizontal temperature advection plays an important role in formation of cold episodes in both eastern Europe and northern China. The advection is balanced by diabatic processes, which show an opposite sign to the temperature advection in both regions. Also adiabatic warming contributes to balancing the advection in northern China. We find that the exact location of the positive SLP anomaly during UH episodes is the most important factor controlling whether or not eastern Europe or northern China will experience a cold episode. If the positive SLP anomaly develops more northwest than usual, eastern Europe will experience a cold episode. When the anomaly moves eastward, northern China will be cold.

Динамика растительности юга Приморья при климатической ритмике малого ледникового периода

Six stages of vegetation development have been identified on the basis of a palynological study of floodplain deposits of the Tsukanovka River (southern Primorye). The first stage is transitional from the medieval warm period, the next four stages are comparable with the climatic phases of the Little Ice Age. The sixth stage in the development of vegetation reflects the modern warming in the 20th century, when modern landscapes have been formed with the participation of the anthropogenic factor. The specific development of a complex of atmospheric-hydrospheric processes, which developed under the direct influence of long-term variations in solar activity, was the reason for the emergence of the Little Ice Age. The coldest phase in the territory of southern Primorye occurred at the end of the 17th century and coincided with the Maunder Grand Minimum of solar activity (1645–1715), it is also characterized by a decrease in humidity. The development of forest vegetation in the valley of the Tsukanovka River recorded alternating warm and cold episodes during the Little Ice Age. In relatively warm phases, the proportion of oak and other broad-leaved trees increased in the forest vegetation in southern Primorye, while in cold phases the proportion of alder increased. In the first half of the XVI century on the territory of southern Primorye, an increase in humidity due to an increase in precipitation is noted. The correlation of paleoclimatic rhythms identified on the basis of spore-pollen analysis results during the Little Ice Age in southern Primorye, with dendrochronological data for the southern Sikhote-Alin and other regions of the northern hemisphere, as well as with historical evidence from neighboring China, has showed the synchronism of the onset of climatic events in the regions, which reflects their global nature and global scale.

Coronavirus disease 2019 associated stroke in a toddler – A case report

Background: Stroke, an infrequent entity in children, usually presents with headache, reduced cognition, and seizures as frequent findings. The association of paediatric stroke with Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is unknown with only a hand full of postulated hypotheses till date. Clinical Description: A 2-year-old child with sudden onset focal neurological deficits and high COVID antibody titters has been reported soon after a brief episode of cough and cold. Magnetic resonance imaging brain suggested infarct in posterior cerebral circulation. All other inflammatory markers and prothrombotic work-up were normal pointing toward a territorial affliction. Management: Child responded well to anticoagulants (low molecular weight heparin and aspirin) with complete neurological recovery. Conclusion: Possibility of COVID-19 associated regional endotheliitis is very high in the aforesaid toddler. Our case is the youngest reported case of paediatric stroke with a possible association with COVID-19.

Warm and Cold Episodes in Western Pacific Warm Pool and Their Linkage With ENSO Asymmetry and Diversity

AbstractThis study investigates the role of temperature anomalies over the western Pacific warm pool (WPWP) in the asymmetry and diversity of El Niño‐Southern Oscillation. Based on observations, we select 12 cold and 13 warm WPWP episodes averaged over July to October. Using composite analyses, we reveal that the occurrence probability of El Niño events is much larger following the cold episodes than that of La Niña events related to warm episodes. The main reason for the different frequencies is that the westerlies associated with cold episodes are stronger and located eastwards than the easterlies for warm episodes, exerting more effective influences on the sea surface temperature in central‐eastern equatorial Pacific through Bjerknes feedback. As for intensity, the El Niño events tend to be stronger when the cold anomalies over WPWP are stronger, evidenced by both observations and Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 simulations. The warming rate from July to October for El Niño events following cold episodes is three times greater than that of other historical events, denoting a prominent contribution from WPWP to the quick development of El Niño. Furthermore, we highlight the implication of WPWP on El Niño diversity with a greater probability of EP‐type El Niño under a colder WPWP state and successive westerly wind bursts. As such, the cold state of WPWP can provide an effective modification for the earlier operational prediction on El Niño intensity and flavors. On the contrary, the warm WPWP state may not be useful for future La Niña alerts.

Beliefs and Factors Affecting the Usage and Compliance of Inhalers in Treatment of Asthma in Children

Background: Despite the availability of several treatment modalities-various formulations of inhaled corticosteroids and delivery devices, the prevalence of asthma is increasing in the developing countries, especially among the paediatric age group. Though Inhaled corticosteroids are effective in the management of asthma, parents prefer oral medications and nebulisers as the treatment modality for their children. Thus, there is a general reluctance amongst the parents towards the use of inhalers. This article focuses on the beliefs and factors affecting the usage and compliance of inhalers in the treatment of asthma.
 Objectives: To assess Beliefs and factors affecting the usage and compliance of inhalers in treatment of asthma in children.
 Materials and Methods: This study was conducted in Tamilnadu from March 2021 to June 2021.A cross -sectional study was conducted among 112 asthma patients of paediatric age group in a tertiary care medical college and hospital in Chennai through a questionnaire containing the demographic details, details regarding the treatment modalities, the inhalers and their usage. The results obtained were tabulated and analyzed.
 Result: The study included 112 asthmatic patients,68 boys and 44 girls of whom 87.17% of the children had recurrent episodes of cough and cold. 45.53% of the patients used oral medications along with nebulisation,26.8% used inhalers and 27.67% used inhalers along with oral medications. 78.57% of the parents were aware about the use of inhalers in the treatment of asthma and 59.82% of the parents showed reluctance to use inhalers for their children.
 Conclusion: In spite of inhaled corticosteroids being effective in the management of asthma, oral medications and nebulisers are the mainstay treatment in majority of the cases. Social stigma, fear of addiction and lack of knowledge are the major reasons for the reluctance of parents towards the use of inhalers.

The effect of circulation conditions on the occurrence of cold episodes in summer in Central Europe

AbstractThe aims of the study were to assess the multiannual variability and trends of cold episodes in summer in Central Europe and to determine circulation conditions favouring their occurrence. The research was conducted based on data obtained for stations from Germany and Poland during the period 1966–2015. Cold episodes were understood as single cold days and cold spells. A cold day is defined as a day on which the maximum air temperature is lower than the 5th percentile of the local function of probability density determined from observation, and a cold spell was defined as at least two consecutive cold days. The observed increase in the air temperature in summer translated into a decrease in the number of cold episodes. The greatest changes in their number were recorded in the southern regions of the study area. On average, during the occurrence of cold episodes in summer in Central Europe, lower than usual sea level pressure was recorded, as well as lower persistence of the 300 hPa geopotential level, indicating the presence of cold air masses. Based on the minimum variance method, known as the Ward method, three circulation types were designated to cause the occurrence of cold episodes. The designated baric conditions caused advection of cold air masses from the northern sector. In each type, the largest T850 anomalies were recorded in Central Europe, reaching even less than −5°C.

Topical antibiotics for acute rhinosinusitis in children

The authors presented an overview of the existing data on inhalation therapy with antibacterial drugs in acute rhinosinusitis and exacerbation of chronic rhinosinusitis in children. The overview includes general information about the etiology and features of the course of acute rhinosinusitis. It also contains indications for systemic and topical antibiotic therapy in acute rhinosinusitis specified in the Russian clinical guidelines. The advantages of using a combination preparation of thiampheni-col and N-acetylcysteine by inhalation therapy for acute rhinosinusitis in children and adults are considered separately. A clinical case of a 15-year-old female patient with complaints of persistent rhinitis over the past 4-5 years is discussed. Historical information: a patient had a runny nose over the last 4-5 years: persistent, viscous nasal discharge with moderate nasal congestion. Nasal symptoms worsened with episodes of acute respiratory illness, and nasal discharge became mucopurulent. The child was preliminarily diagnosed with chronic rhinosinusitis (incomplete remission), moderate course. To reduce the severity of the symptoms of the disease, which were present at the time of examination, the following were recommended: daily one-to-two irrigation of the nasal cavity with slightly hypertonic (1.5-3%) solutions of sea water, followed by a toilet of the nasal cavity; in case of episodes of colds with the appearance of mucopurulent secretions, inhalation therapy in a pulsating mode of the inhaler with a solution of thiamphenicol and N-acetylcysteine at a dose of 500 mg once a day (in the first half of the day) for the next 10 days and further; the use of a nasal spray of mometasone furoate, 200 mcg per day during inhalation therapy for another 3 weeks. At the follow-up examination after 10 days of treatment, the patient reported a significant decrease in the severity of nasal symptoms, which coincided with an improvement in the rhinoscopic status. It can be concluded that the use of topical antibacterial drugs by inhalation therapy for acute rhinosinusitis, despite all its advantages, is not an equivalent substitute for systemic antibiotic therapy in the treatment of severe and especially complicated forms of the disease. The inhalation therapy is recommended in the presence of indications for systemic antibiotic therapy, since it is an auxiliary method of treatment, the action of which is aimed at enhancing the effect of systemic antibiotics.

Low-latitude ?upper Barremian–lower Aptian palynoflora and paleovegetation of the Biyadh Formation (Arabian Plate, eastern margin of northern Gondwana): evidence for a possible cold snap

A palynological analysis of core and cuttings samples from successions assigned to the Biyadh Formation of Saudi Arabia in the Arabian Gulf (eastern margin of northern Gondwana) revealed diverse and well-preserved palynological assemblages including bryophyte and fern spores, gymnosperm and flowering plant pollen, dinocysts, and acritarchs. Palynological data corroborates earlier geological and stratigraphic models, indicating a ?late Barremianearly Aptian age. The fluctuations of dinocyst abundance and diversity proved extremely useful to detect fine-scale sea-level changes in carbonate platforms with episodic terrigenous inputs. In agreement with current understanding of dinocyst paleoenvironmental distribution trends, Cribroperidinium and Aptea? vannophora are restricted to inner neritic/?fluvial-influenced settings, while Spiniferites and Trichodinium have been confirmed as more open marine water (middle/outer neritic) indicators. The composition of the terrestrial assemblages is dominated by fluvially-transported spores, mainly released by ferns and probable tree ferns. The overall floral composition is considered to reflect a seasonal, humid, climate punctuated by episodic droughts. Recurrent increases in abundance of wind-pollinated cheirolepid and Araucariaceae pollen, observed in assemblages otherwise characterized by low dinocyst content, are interpreted to represent sea-level falls and basinward expansion/migration of conifer-dominated coastal vegetation. The abundance of the dinocysts Cepadinium variabilis and Pseudoceratium nohrhansenii sp. nov., previously recorded at higher latitudes, is interpreted to reflect the invasion of cooler/colder water masses, confirming a significant ?latest Barremian/early Aptian global cold episode, possibly related to the OAE1a event. The following new dinocyst taxa are described: Pseudoceratium nohrhansenii sp. nov. and Protobatioladium alhajrii sp. nov.

Refining the depositional model of the lower Permian Carynginia Formation in the northern Perth Basin: anatomy of an ancient mouth bar

The late early Permian coincided with a short-lived cold episode in Western Australia, which occurred long after the demise of late Paleozoic ice sheets, and is manifested by conspicuous dropstones in corresponding marine strata. In the northern Perth Basin, this time interval is represented by the Carynginia Formation, which has long been regarded as a record of low-energy marginal-marine sedimentation. The low-diversity body-fossil content and impoverished trace-fossil assemblages in the formation were recognised as evidence of low salinities, low dissolved-oxygen levels and high suspended-sediment concentrations presumably related to freshwater influxes into a restricted basin. However, sedimentary facies indicative of river processes have yet to be documented to explain the sedimentological and paleontological character of the formation. This study examines an overlooked sandstone-rich interval of the Carynginia Formation in the Irwin Sub-basin, a marginal half graben faulted against crystalline basement of the Yilgarn Craton and forming part of a series of late Paleozoic intracratonic rift basins in Western Australia. Facies analysis indicates that the lower part of the interval is dominated by storm-generated deposits containing extraformational pebbles and boulders. These deposits are interpreted as recording lower-shoreface sedimentation under the influence of seasonal sea ice, and constitute a shallower, sandstone-rich equivalent of mudstone-prone strata that otherwise characterise the Carynginia Formation. The upper part of the interval consists of river-borne deposits representing friction-dominated deposition of a river-mouth bar, the first direct record of deltaic sedimentation in the Carynginia Formation. The stratal organisation of mouth-bar bedsets is likely the result of successive sediment-laden pulses related to seasonal floods in a shallow marine basin, and the autogenic evolution of the mouth-bar complex in response to fluctuating river discharge and compensational stacking. Formative runoff events were arguably responsible for reductions in salinity and the introduction of turbid buoyant plumes into the shallow sea that were adverse to faunal development. A fluvial influence may explain the sedimentary character and fossil content of coeval mudstone-prone formations in Western Australian rift basins, especially in the vicinity of cratonic margins. KEY POINTS The lower Permian (late Artinskian–Kungurian) mudstone-prone Carynginia Formation in the northern Perth Basin has long been regarded as the record of low-energy, marginal-marine conditions in a cold-water seaway. The low-diversity fossil content in the lower part of the formation indicates stressed physico-chemical conditions influenced by freshwater, sediment-laden influxes. The described mouth-bar deposits are the first direct evidence of deltaic sedimentation in the Carynginia Formation, demonstrating that river outflows likely controlled water chemistry and impacted faunal development.

Climate-driven soil erosion processes in alpine environments over the last century: Evidence from the Taibai Mountain (central China)

Over the last century, climate warming has increased vegetation coverage in alpine regions, having major implications for associated terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Due to the remoteness of mountainous regions, there is a paucity of monitoring data regarding the response of catchment processes to climate change. Particle size distribution, magnetic properties, and elemental contents were investigated in 210Pb-dated sediment cores (34 cm in length) collected from two hydrologically-connected cirque lakes in the Taibai Mountain (the highest mountain in east mainland China). Both lakes have experienced directional environment changes since the 1980s, suggested by concurrent increases in magnetic susceptibility and organic matter. Prolonged growth season under a scenario of warmer climate has promoted vegetation development and soil conservation, subsequently increasing the contribution of terrestrial detritus derived from top soils that are rich in magnetic minerals and organic matter. Contents of clay and silt remained high throughout the two sediment cores, suggesting that depositional environment was relatively stable in both lakes. However, few peaks in coarse particles probably resulted from the cold and wet climate between the 1940s and the 1970s. During the relatively cold and wet episodes, prolonged snow-packs and enhanced melt-water discharge would strengthen bedrock weathering and erosion intensity, subsequently increasing the influxes of coarse particles. This is the first study to reveal decadal-scale changes in catchment processes of the Taibai Mountain, and the results highlight positive effects of climate warming on environmental protection of our study site and other similar alpine mountains through promoting water and soil conservation.

Control Mechanisms of Primary Productivity Revealed by Calcareous Nannoplankton From Marine Isotope Stages 12 to 9 at the Shackleton Site (IODP Site U1385)

AbstractNowadays, primary productivity variations at the SW Iberian Margin (IbM) are primarily controlled by wind‐driven upwelling. Thus, major changes in atmospheric circulation and wind regimes between the Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 12 and 9 could have driven substantial changes in phytoplankton productivity which remains poorly understood. We present a high‐resolution calcareous nannofossil record from the Shackleton Site Integrated Ocean Discovery Program Site U1385 that allow the assessment of primary productivity and changing surface conditions on orbital and suborbital timescales over the SW IbM. These records are directly compared and integrated with terrestrial – Mediterranean forest pollen – and marine – benthic and planktic oxygen stable isotopes (δ18O), alkenone concentration [C37], Uk´37‐Sea Surface Temperature and % C37:4 – proxy records from Site U1385. Our results indicate intra‐interglacial increase in primary productivity together with intensification of the Azores anticyclonic high‐pressure cell beyond the summer that suggests a two‐phase upwelling behavior during the full interglacial MIS 11c (∼420–397 ka), potentially drived by atmospheric NAO‐like variability. Primary productivity is largely enhanced during the inception of glacial MIS 10 and the early MIS 10 (∼392–356 ka), linked to intensified upwelling and associated processes during a period of strengthened atmospheric circulation. In agreement with the conditions observed during Heinrich events of the last glacial cycle, primary productivity reductions during abrupt cold episodes, including the Heinrich‐type (Ht) events 4 to 1 (∼436, 392, 384 and 339 ka) and the Terminations V and IV, seems to be the result of halocline formation induced by meltwater arrival, reducing the regional upward nutrient transference.

An Oral Combination of Turmeric-Pomegranate (With Ginger) Prevents Viral (Cold/ Flu) Episodes in Immunocompromised Patients

The aim of this pharma standard (“PS”) supplement, registry was the evaluation – in a period of 3 months – of the effects of the use of a standardized combination (oral supplement including turmeric, pomegranate and ginger) in preventing common, winter, viral events (cold and flu episodes). Results: No safety or tolerability problem was observed with the supplement. The two resulting registry management groups – standard management (SM) and SM+the supplement combination – were comparable. The number of viral (cold/flu) episodes (lasting more than 3 days), and the total number of subjects with any episode was in favor of the group managed with the preventive supplement combination (p<0.05). The average number of days of disease and the lost working days were lower with the combination (Phyto Relief). The use of other OTC products and the number of complications were significantly lower (<0.05) with the supplement combination. The number of subjects with a clinical extension of the disease to more than 7 days with bronchial or tracheal complications was also lower (p<0.05) with the supplements in comparison with the SM group. Salivation was improved more in the supplemented group (p<0.05). The results of this concept, preliminary study in mildly immuno-compromised subjects shows that Phyto Relief may help prevent some episodes of cold/flu and help (by shortening the length of the episodes) the evolution of viral episodes when used early, when the initial symptoms can be identified. More specific evaluations and larger prevention studies are needed, in a more heterogenous population. The extension of this supplementary prevention to more subjects and for longer periods may indicate a more permanent effect of this supplement combination on improving local, mucosal immunity and resistance to viral spread. Conclusions: The evaluation of immunocompromised subjects is significant in clinical conditions prevention (winter viral episodes) with this natural combination which may also avoid prolonged respiratory complications.

Phytorelief-CC in Prevention of Flu and Cold: A 4 To 6 Month Registry Study

The aim of this supplement, registry study was to evaluate the effects of the use of standardized, oral supplement (PhytoRelief CC, Alchem). Phyto-Relief CC includes anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-edema natural compounds. Increased salivation produced by ginger is useful in the prevention of cold episodes and on signs and symptoms associated to the episodes by increasing saliva and its content in lysozyme. The main targets of the study were the evaluation of the occurrence of episodes and the reduction of signs/symptoms, the reduction of days of disease, the reduction in the use of other treatments, and the evaluation and control of cold-related complications.

Oral Phytorelief: Prevention of Upper Respiratory Tract Viral Conditions; Virucidal (Covid) and Germicidal Activity

This review presents results from recent supplement studies on PhytoRelief, an oral product including standardized natural extracts of pomegranate, curcuma and ginger. PhytoRelief (PF) lozenges dissolve slowly in the mouth producing a protective mucosal gel/film acting as a barrier against the most common upper respiratory tract (URT) viral infection. GLOBAL EVALUATION: PR (as a pharma-standard supplement) appears to be effective – according to recent, controlled and prospective registry studies - as a virucidal (on Covid-19) and a germicidal (bactericidal) product – but more clinical studies in patients with different conditions are needed. Clinically, PR helps preventing a number of episodes of cold and flu and limits symptoms and the duration of the URT problem. This OTC product can be used without prescription – without risks of side effects - and it appears to be generally effective on most signs and symptoms of viral infections. PR has a good preventive value. No side effects or tolerability problem were observed in any patient. The important virucidal and germicidal activities to be better defined need larger and a more prolonged evaluation period in different contexts associated to viral infections. With predictive analytics and careful planning, it is possible to show the virucidal-bactericidal effects (and their clinical preventive efficacy) of PR in weeks. The planning of new studies – also evaluating the effects of PR on the immune system - is in progress.

Ранний - средний голоцен северного Сахалина

New palynological and radiocarbon data obtained from sections of two ancient peatbogs permitted to specify the landscape and climatic changes in the nature of the first half of the Holocene on the southern outskirts of North Sakhalin. The Early Holocene was generally colder and drier in comparison with modern climatic conditions. The vegetation cover was dominated by larch/birch forests with the shrub birch undergrowth. In the middle of the Boreal Period (9000-8400 yrs. BP / 10,100-9300 Cal. yrs. BP), the climate became significantly warmer and slightly wetter, yet remaining drier than the modern one. Birch forests with the presence of broad-leaved and dark coniferous tree species were widespread. In the initial phase of the Atlantic Period (probably 7800-7500 yrs. BP / 8800-8300 Cal. yrs. BP), in the climatic conditions warmer and much more humid than modern ones, the first expansion of spruce/fir forests occurred. The second half of the early and first half of the middle phase of the Atlantic Period (7500-6500 yrs. BP / 8300-7400 Cal. yrs. BP) were distinguished by decreased humidity and further warming of the climate, which resulted in dominating birch forests, subordinate spruce/fir taiga, and a lot of deciduous forests. There were two cold episodes at the beginning and in the middle of this stage. The first of them, about 7300 yrs. BP / 8100 Cal. yrs. BP, was dry and provided the return of birch/larch forests. The second, about 7100 yrs. BP / 7900 Cal. yrs. BP, had a more humid climate, which caused an increase in the role of dark coniferous taiga and a weakening of birch forests. In the second half of the middle and, possibly, the beginning of the late phase of the period (probably 6500-5400 yrs. BP / 7400-6200 Cal. yrs. BP), spruce/fir forests with participation of broad-leaved tree spread. They developed in a warmer and more humid climate, similar to the current climate in the south of the Sakhalin Island and close to the optimal climatic conditions of the post-glacial time. The middle of the Late Atlantic Period, about 5300 yrs. BP / 6100 Cal. yrs. BP, was marked by the second, maximum expansion of spruce/ fir forests, due to the onset of the cool and, possibly, the wettest episode in the Middle Holocene.

<p align="center">A new Norwegian Lemming subspecies from Novaya Zemlya, Arctic Russia

Norwegian Lemming Lemmus lemmus is a remarkable population cycling species having a number of aposematic traits in coloration and behavior. This species was thought to be the only mammal endemic to Fennoscandia. Here, we report on the discovery of a distinct lineage of this species from Novaya Zemlya. This lineage is described here as the new subspecies Lemmus lemmus chernovi ssp. nov. that morphologically differs from the nominate subspecies by having a cryptic coloration. Our time-calibrated phylogeny revealed that this insular subspecies was isolated there since the Eemian interglacial (mean age 93 Ka). Hence, bright coloration and antipredator behavior of the nominate subspecies are novel aposematic traits that evolved since its isolation in a European refugium. This new discovery indicates that Novaya Zemlya supported a cryptic polar refugium for cold-adapted terrestrial fauna during the Pleistocene. Finally, our findings highlight that allopatric ranges of the true lemmings (Lemmus) reflect stepwise range expansions in cold climatic episodes with subsequent isolation in refugia during interglacial events.