Size Of Coherent Scattering Regions Research Articles

Anisotropy of Electrical and Thermal Conductivity in High-Density Graphite Foils.

Flexible graphite foils with varying thicknesses (S = 282 ± 5 μm, M = 494 ± 7 μm, L = 746 ± 8 μm) and an initial density of 0.70 g/cm3 were obtained using the nitrate method. The specific electrical and thermal conductivity of these foils were investigated. As the density increased from 0.70 g/cm3 to 1.75 g/cm3, the specific electrical conductivity increased from 69 to 192 kS/m and the thermal conductivity increased from 109 to 326 W/(m·K) due to the rolling of graphite foils. The study showed that conductivity and anisotropy depend on the shape, orientation, and contact area of thermally expanded graphite (TEG) mesoparticles (mesostructural factor), and the crystal structure of nanocrystallites (nanostructural factor). A proposed mesostructural model explained these increases, with denser foils showing elongated, narrowed TEG particles and larger contact areas, confirmed by electron microscopy results. For graphite foils 200 and 750 μm thick, increased density led to a larger coherent scattering region, likely due to the rotation of graphite mesoparticles under mechanical action, while thinner foils (<200 μm) with densities > 1.7 g/cm3 showed increased plastic deformation, indicated by a sharp reduction in the coherent scattering region size. This was also evident from the decrease in misorientation angles with increasing density. Rolling reduced nanocrystallite misorientation angles along the rolling direction compared to the transverse direction (TD) (for 1.75 g/cm3 density ΔMA = 1.2° (S), 2.6° (M), and 2.4° (L)), explaining the observed anisotropy in the electrical and mechanical properties of the rolled graphite foils. X-ray analysis confirmed the preferred nanocrystallite orientation and anisotropy coefficients (A) using Kearns parameters, which aligned well with experimental measurements (for L series foils calculated as: A0.70 = 1.05, A1.30 = 1.10, and A1.75 = 1.16). These calculated values corresponded well with the experimental measurements of specific electrical conductivity, where the anisotropy coefficient changed from 1.00 to 1.16 and mechanical properties varied from 0.98 to 1.13.

Structure and physical properties of multicomponent films based on the Fe-Si-B system

The influence of modernized three-electrode ion-plasma sputtering of a complex Fe–Si–B– (Cu, Nb)/(Ni, Mo) target on the structure and properties of sputtered films was studied. The formation of amorphous and nanocrystalline phases in Fe73Si15.8B7.2-(Cu, Nb)4 and Fe78.5Si6B14-(Ni, Mo)1.5 films with a coherent scattering region size of 1.6 nm and 12 nm, respectively, was established as a result of a modernized three-electrode ion - plasma sputtering. The thermal stability of metastable states of films as well as electrical and magnetic properties of freshly prepared and heat-treated films has been investigated. The conditions for obtaining films with low values of the temperature coefficient of electrical resistance (−0.9∙10−5 K−1) and coercive force (HC ∼11 A/m) have been determined.

Physical properties of Fe–Ag–Pt films

Data are presented on the effect of high-frequency three-electrode ion-plasma sputtering and modernized three-electrode ion-plasma sputtering of a Fe–Ag–Pt complex target on the structure and properties of deposited films. The formation of nanocrystalline films with a size of the coherent scattering region of 3.5 nm during high-frequency ion-plasma spraying has been established. With the modernized three-electrode ion-plasma sputtering, a nanocrystalline phase is formed with a coherent scattering region size of 3 nm and higher temperature stability, up to 660 K. There were investigated the thermal stability of the metastable states of the Fe–Ag–Pt films; the electro- and hysteresis magnetic properties of freshly prepared and heat-treated films. The conditions for obtaining films with low values of the temperature coefficient of electrical resistance (∼5 × 10−5 K−1) and coercive force (Hc ∼ 12 kA/m) are determined.

(Na, Zr) and (Ca, Zr) Phosphate-Molybdates and Phosphate-Tungstates: I-Synthesis, Sintering and Characterization.

Submicron-grade powders of Na1-xZr2(PO4)3-x(XO4)x compounds (hereafter referred to as NZP) and Ca1-xZr2(PO4)3-x(XO4)x compounds (hereafter, CZP), X = Mo, W (0 ≤ x ≤ 0.5) were obtained by sol-gel synthesis. The compounds obtained were studied by X-ray diffraction phase analysis and electron microscopy. An increase in the W or Mo contents was shown to result in an increase in the unit cell volume of the NZP and CZP crystal lattices and in a decrease in the coherent scattering region sizes. Thermal expansion behavior at high temperatures of synthesized NZP and CZP compounds has been investigated. The dependencies of the parameters a and c on the heating temperature, as well as the temperature dependence of the crystal lattice unit cell volume V in the range from the room temperature up to 800 °C, were obtained. The dependencies of the average thermal expansion coefficient (αav) and of the volume coefficient (β) on the W and Mo contents in the compositions of NZP and CZP compounds were studied. Ceramics Na1-xZr2(PO4)3-x(XO4)x with relatively high density (more than 97.5%) were produced by spark plasma sintering (SPS). The increase in the W or Mo contents in the ceramics leads to an increase in the relative density of NZP and to a decrease of the optimum sintering temperature. The mean grain size in the NZP ceramics decreases with increasing W or Mo contents. The study of strength characteristics has revealed that the hardness of the NZP ceramics is greater than 5 GPa, and that the minimum fracture toughness factor was 1 MPa·m1/2.

ELECTROLESS PLATING OF NI-MO-P ALLOY

Electroless plating of Ni-Mo-P alloy coatings is described from a solution containing sodium pyrophosphate and ammonium chloride as ligands. Application of these ligands allowed using relatively large sodium molybdate concentrations in the solution (8…16 mM), while the high electroless plating rate (up to 20 μm/h) was preserved and semibright coatings were obtained. Depending on the sodium molybdate concentration in the solution, Ni-Mo-P alloys contained 3.5…7.4 at.% of molybdenum in the metallic state. Phosphorus was included into the alloy in the form of nickel phosphide NiP. According to the XRD data. the Ni-Mo-P coatings had a nanocrystalline structure with the coherent scattering region size of 25…34 nm.

Unusual Lattice Parameters Behavior for La1.9Ca0.1NiO4+δ at the Temperatures below Oxygen Loss

In this work, we studied the structural features of La1.9Ca0.1NiO4.11, which is considered a promising cathode material for intermediate temperature solid-oxide fuel cells (IT-SOFC). The effect of different pretreatments on the structural characteristics of the sample was studied using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) in order to elucidate the origin of a peculiar change of lattice parameters observed earlier during in situ XRD studies. The XRD studies have shown that anisotropic broadening for reflections with a high Miller index l appears after tempering of a quenched (from 1100 °C) sample at 250 °C. This temperature is too low for the release/incorporation of oxygen into the structure but is sufficient for oxygen migration inside the structure. The HRTEM assisted us in revealing differences in the defect structure after different pretreatments. Based on obtained results, the following possible explanation was proposed. Observed additional microstrains and non-oriented planar defects as well as a decrease in the coherent scattering region size in the [00l] direction are caused by the non-homogeneous redistribution of interstitial oxygen in the structure during tempering.

СУЧАСНИЙ СТАН ТА ПЕРСПЕКТИВИ РОЗВИТКУ НАНОСТРУКТУРУВАННЯ ДЕФОРМОВАНИХ МЕТАЛІВ І СПЛАВІВ ТА НАПИЛЕНИХ ПОКРИТТІВ

The information presented in the article is an overview of the possibility of improving the mechanical properties of metals, alloys and sprayed coatings in order to obtain a dispersed, in particular, nanoscale substructure, which allows obtaining a set of unique operational characteristics, which, in turn, will increase the resource of parts of machines and mechanisms that are used in mechanical engineering.Today, the most common methodof nanostructuring is intensive plastic deformation (by friction, by equal-channel angular pressing, etc.), however, these methods can only be used for the manufacture of parts with a small cross-section, so the creation of new methods of deformation-thermal treatment is an urgent task of modern materials science.The paper shows the possibility of applying pre-deformation and pre-recrystallization heat treatment for technically pure iron, carbon steels of 1020 (сталь 20), 1045 (сталь 45), 1070 (сталь 70),A284Gr.D (Ст3) and C80W (У8) brands, alloyed steels of 5140H (40Х) and AISI 420 (20Х13) brands, Sv-08G2S (Св-08Г2С) gas-thermal and electric arc coatings, as well as Ni80Cr20 nichrome alloy and CuA19Mn2 (2.0960) bronze (БрАМц9-2).The work compares methods of static deformation with methods of intensive plastic deformation and shows that pre-recrystallization heat treatment allows to significantly strengthen metals (more than 30%) in combination with sufficient plasticity (for A284Gr.D (Ст3) steel, the relative elongation is up to 7.5%, and the relative narrowing is up to 75 %).The work presents the results of the experimental investigation of the influence of deformation and thermal factors on the mechanical properties, in particular, hardness and strength, of metals, alloys and sprayed coatings. It is established that the strengthening effect occurs due to the refinement of substructural elements, such as the size of coherent scatteringregions, the disorientation angle of subgrains, and the number of substructural elements to a nanoscale state. Thus, with the help of additional deformation followed by pre-recrystallization and heat treatment of carbon and alloyed steels, it is possible to obtain subgrains with a size of less than 200 nm with a disorientation angle of up to 2 ° with a relative amount of nanoscale subgrains of up to 65%.The possibility of industrial application of the proposed technology is shown on the example of production of regulating springs of membrane valves of pipelines made of 1070 (сталь 70) steel, which allows to increase the hardness by 19%.

Influence of a synthesis method and a support nature on physicochemical and catalytic properties of supported rhodium catalysts for the partial oxidation of hydrocarbons. I. Chloride series

Abstract Rhodium catalysts supported on bayerite and pseudoboehmite alumina, calcined at 800 °С, were synthesized and tested in the partial oxidation of methane. Rhodium (III) chloride was used as an active component precursor. The supports and catalysts were investigated by a wide range of physicochemical methods: XRD, SEM and HR TEM, XPS and UV–vis DRS. In both cases, large rhodium particles with a coherent scattering region size of 15–19 nm are formed, and small ones with dimensions less than 1 nm. On the whole, smaller rhodium particles are formed on the bayerite oxide. The catalyst with pseudoboehmite-type support shows better results in the reaction.

Change in Structural-Phase States and Properties of Lengthy Rails during Extremely Long-Term Operation

The regularities and formation mechanisms of structural-phase states and properties at different depths in the rail heads along the central axis and fillet after differential quenching of 100-meter rails and extremely long operation (with passed tonnage of 1411 million tons gross weight) have been revealed by the methods of the state-of-the-art physical materials science. As revealed, the differential quenching is accompanied by the formation of morphologically multi-aspect structure presented by grains of lamellar perlite, ferrite–carbide mixture, and structure-free ferrite. The steel structure is characterized by the α-Fe lattice parameter, the level of microstresses, the size of coherent-scattering region, the value of interlamellar distance, the scalar and excess dislocation densities. As shown, the extremely long operation of rails is accompanied by the numerous transformations of metal structure of rail head: firstly, a fracture of lamellar pearlite structure and a formation of subgrain structure of submicron (100–150 nm) sizes in the bulk of pearlite colonies; secondly, a precipitation of carbide phase particles of nanometer range along the boundaries and in the bulk of subgrains; thirdly, a microdistortion growth of steel crystal lattice; fourthly, a strain hardening of metal resulting in the increase (by 1.5-fold) in scalar and excess dislocation densities relative to the initial state. A long-term operation of rails is accompanied by the formation of structural constituent gradient consisting in a regular change in the relative content of lamellar pearlite, fractured pearlite, and structure of ferrite–carbide mixture along cross-section of railhead. As the distance to the rail fillet surface decreases, a relative content of metal volume with lamellar pearlite decreases, and that with the structure of fractured pearlite and ferrite–carbide mixture increases. As determined, the characteristic feature of ferrite–carbide mixture structure is a nanosize range of grains, subgrains and carbide-phase particles forming it. The size of grains and subgrains forming the type of structure varies in the limits of 40–70 nm; the size of carbide-phase particles located along the boundaries of grains and subgrains varies in the limits of 8–20 nm. A multiaspect character of steel strengthening is detected that is caused by several factors: firstly, the substructural strengthening due to the formation of fragment subboundaries, whose boundaries are stabilized by the carbide-phase particles; secondly, the strengthening by carbide-phase particles located in the bulk of fragments and on elements of dislocation substructure (dispersion hardening); thirdly, the strengthening caused by the precipitation of carbon atoms on dislocations (formation of Cottrell atmospheres); fourthly, the strengthening being introduced by internal stress fields due to incompatibility of crystal-lattices’ deformation of α-phase structural constituents and carbide-phase particles.

Application of X-Ray Methods for Determining the Dimensions of Nanoparticles in the Nanosized Anatase–Poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) System

Nanocomposites prepared by mechanical mixing with grinding and mechanical activation of a mixture of Hombifine N with nanosized anatase (NA) and poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) (PVCL) polymer (PVCL25 and PVCL40 polymers were obtained by drying a PVC aqueous solution at 25 and 40°C, respectively) in different weight ratios have been studied by wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) and (for the first time) small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Amorphization of anatase (decrease in the average size of the coherent-scattering region), selection of X-ray amorphous hydrated titanium dioxide from the amorphous shell of anatase nanoparticles, destruction of PVCL, and disordering of its heterocycles in NA/PVCL (NA : PVCL = 1 : 1) nanocomposites upon mechanical activation have been revealed. The interaction (with water molecule exchange) between anatase, anatase, and PVCL nanoparticles during formation of NA/PVCL25 (NA : PVCL = 1 : 2) upon mechanical mixing with grinding is found to lead to segregation of anatase nanoparticles into two groups: particles with reduced and enhanced (formation of texture) degree of crystallinity (average sizes of coherent-scattering regions) in comparison with the initial anatase. SAXS made it possible to reveal structural inhomogeneities of different sizes in PVCL25 and PVCL40, which change differently upon mechanical activation, retaining the tendency to smaller sizes in PVCL25 (a coil) in comparison with PVCL40 (a globule). It is shown that the effects of mechanical activation and mechanical mixing with grinding on the components of NA–PVCL system differ, and that anatase nanoparticles play a decisive role in NA/PVCL nanocomposites, facilitating averaging of the inhomogeneity sizes upon mechanical activation. The results of studying the photocatalytic activity in the reaction of methyl orange decomposition (UV irradiation) in the presence of NA–PVCL samples indicate that it depends on the average sizes of coherent-scattering regions and is independent of the inhomogeneity sizes.

Modification of the microstructure and properties of martensitic steel during ultra-high dose high-intensity implantation of nitrogen ions

In this work, we report a study of the chemical and phase composition, structural modifications and mechanical properties of martensitic stainless steel surface layers modified by high-intensity nitrogen ion implantation using a high current beam of low-energy nitrogen ions. The effect of ultrahigh-dose implantation of nitrogen ions into steel using a high-intensity repetitively pulsed beam of nitrogen ions with a current of 0.6 A (at an ion energy of 1.2 keV) and a sample temperature of 500 °C is investigated. The fluence of ion irradiation in the range from 6 × 1021 ions/cm2 to 2.25 × 1021 ions/cm2 varied by changing the current density and implantation time. The studies performed using transmission electron microscopy and X-Ray diffraction analysis of the microstructure and phase composition of the implanted samples showed that the surface-doped layer formed up to 75 μm thick and contains ferrite, iron nitride Fe4N, and chromium nitride CrN (α-phase – 70.88 vol.%, γ'-Fe4N – 16.30 vol.%, CrN – 12.82 vol.%). The obtained values of the coherent scattering region size of the formed chromium nitride and iron nitride indicate a very high dispersion of the elements in the ion-doped layer substructure. The data on changes in the surface morphology and microhardness of the near-surface layers are presented.

Structural phase states and properties of rails after long-term operation

The investigations into structural phase states and properties of differentiatedly quenched 100-m rails of DT 350 category after extremely long-term operation (passed tonnage of 1411 mln. t brutto) were performed by the methods of modern physical material science. It has been established that rail operation results in the essential strengthening of surface layer up to 80–100 μm in thickness independent of the studied area of rail head. The microhardness of rail surface is 1.5–2-fold higher in comparison with volume and it decreases with the distance from the surface. A 7-fold increase in wear resistance of tread surface and 1.3-fold increase in friction coefficient with respect to volume have been revealed. The values of α-Fe crystal lattice parameter of tread surface (a = 0.28699 nm), the distortions of cementite crystal lattice (Δd/d = 2.37·10-3) are higher but the relative content of cementite (3.31 mas. %) and the size of coherent-scattering region (D = 20.6 nm) are lower than the corresponding values in volume. The long-term operation of rails is accompanied by the failure of cementite plates and carbon being liberated goes into solid solution and precipitates on the defects of crystal structure (dislocations, interphase and intraphase interfaces).

The Effect of Cyclic Loading on the Size of Coherent Scattering Regions of X-Ray Radiation in Crystalline Samples

The effect of cyclic loading on the magnitude of coherent scattering regions (CSR) of X-ray radiation and microstresses of the II type in various crystalline materials: semiconductor (samarium sulfide) and metal (steel, duralumin) has been found. The loading was carried out by compressing the samples in various ways: all-round, uniaxial, bending compression. It is shown that with an increase in the number of compression cycles, the CSR values in all cases decrease, and the microstresses increase. These values can serve as parameters to assess the degree of mechanical fatigue of the material.

Nanostructured magnetic films based on iron with refractory metals

Abstract The electrolysis modes affect on the quantitative and phase composition of the ternary Fe-Co-W and Fe-Co-Mo coatings is studied. It was established that the distribution of refractory components over the thickness of the coating varies in the opposite way with increasing duration of electrolysis – the molybdenum content increases and the tungsten one decreases. Amorphous-crystalline structure of alloys has been visualized by X-ray spectroscopy, including inter-metallic phases Co7W6, Fe7W6, Fe7Mo, Fe7Co, FeCo along with α-Fe and Fe3C. The size of coherent-scattering region of the amorphous part is of 6–8 nm. The formation of metallic tungsten and molybdenum additional phases has been detected for alloys deposited at pulse current which contributes microhardness Hμ increase up to 700 compared with direct current mode. Magnetic characteristics of Fe-Co-W(Mo) films were measured depending of deposition time. It was concluded that the content of magnetic phases in upper layers of Fe-Co-W deposits is higher than in the bottom ones and superior Fe-Co-Mo coatings. It qualitatively corresponds to W(Mo) content changes over the thickness.

The Effect of Annealing on Mechanical Properties, the Number of Fluidity, and the Size of Coherent Scattering Regions in AMg1, AMg5, and AMg6 Alloys

The paper presents the results of research of the structural blocking influence in Al-Mg sheet aluminum alloys on the change in mechanical properties and the stamp ability after cold working and annealing. The study was provided on sheet billets of AlMg1, AlMg5 and AlMg6 alloys containing respectively 1, 5 and 6 mass.% Mg. The initial thickness of the blanks is 2.5 mm. The blanks were cold rolled with a reduction rate of 30%. To eliminate the cold working hardening alloys were subjected to annealing at temperatures of 380 and 420°C for 1 hour. The charts of tensile strength, yield stress, and elongation change are plotted, depending on the state of the samples. Stamping was evaluated by the stamping ratio σ0.2/σb. To analyze the alloys’ grain structure blocking, the change in the size of the coherent scattering areas was estimated on the basis of X-ray diffraction studies. It is established that annealing leads to a significant decrease in the tensile strength, yield stress and elongation growth of alloys AlMg1, AlMg5 and AlMg6 sheet samples in the annealing temperature interval 380...420 ̊С. Despite the high plasticity of the AlMg1 alloy, it has lower stamping characteristics than alloys with higher magnesium content (AlMg5 and AlMg6). The yield stress of alloys decreases with increasing of annealing temperature, which indicates an increase in their stamping ability after annealing. The change in the coherent scattering areas sizes in alloys depends on the magnesium content. With an increase in the magnesium content, the coherent scattering area size increase with the annealing temperature. For an AlMg1 alloy, annealing after cold rolling does not lead to a change in the coherent scattering area size.

Modified Pechini method for the synthesis of weakly-agglomerated nanocrystalline yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) powders

Modification of Pechini method for synthesis of weakly agglomerated yttrium aluminum garnet powder has been presented. Modified synthesis procedure is based on an additional calcination process in KCl melt at 1000 °C and allows obtaining weaker agglomeration of nanoparticles. Structure, morphology and particle size have been defined using scanning electron microscopy technique, X-ray diffraction, and static light scattering. Adsorption ability of powders has also been studied. Diffraction patterns of samples confirm existence of only one YAG phase; the average size of particles is about 200 nm. The size of coherent-scattering regions was determined to be 40–50 nm. Steady-state luminescence properties and lifetimes of nanocrystalline YAG:Eu3+ powders synthesized by standard and modified Pechini techniques were compared.

Thermal relaxation of defects in nanosized mechanically activated МоО3

The regularities of the thermal relaxation of structural defects (paramagnetic centers and microdistortions), as well as the sizes of coherent-scattering regions and the external surface, of mechanically activated МоО3 have been studied with the use of X-ray diffraction, electron paramagnetic resonance, and adsorption/desorption methods. It has been revealed that heating of activated samples at temperatures below 450°C is accompanied by the death of paramagnetic centers, annealing of microdistortions, and liberation of molecular oxygen. It has been assumed that oxygen results from the rupture of deformed Mo–O–Mo bridge bonds formed by its atoms. Above 450°C, recrystallization processes occur, which are accompanied by an increase in the sizes of the coherent-scattering regions and the MoO3 (monoclinic) → MoO3 (orthorhombic) phase transition. The thermal stability of the external particle surface depends on mechanical activation conditions. For samples activated at early stages of activation (fracture regime), the specific surface area decreases by more than an order of magnitude, when a temperature of 450°C is reached. At higher activation doses (friction regime), the sample is not sintered in the same temperature range.

Synthesis and characterization of nickel hydroxide nanoparticles obtained by chemical deposition method under different precipitation conditions

The aim of this investigation was to produce nickel hydroxide nanoparticles by chemical deposition method using different synthesis conditions such as temperature, pH and washing type. The phase composition was analyzed by X-ray diffractometer, which reveals that all the particles were β-Ni(OH)2 phase with hexagonal lattice. XRD analysis also allowed determining the coherent scattering region size in order to compare it with particle size. Transmission electron microscopy showed that the Ni(OH)2 particles have film forms with a thickness of about 1 nm. The surface area was determined using Brunauer-Emmett-Teller method and varies from 2 to 41 m2/gr.

In English

Crystalline and electronic structures of nanoalumina alone and in different mixtures with nanosilica have been analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and ultrasoft X-ray emission spectroscopy (USXES). Narrowing of the OK α bands of crystalline alumina occurs with decreasing nanoparticle size. Electron transfer from oxygen to aluminum atoms due to Al–O bond breakage under irradiation leads to occupation of high-energy 3d level of Al. In nanoparticles, the Al–O bond strength and O–O interactions enhanced by Laplace (bubble) pressure lead to δ phase stabilizing if coherent-scattering region size (d CSR ) reaches 7 nm which is smaller than that for θ phase (d CSR = 11–20 nm) of alumina and silica/alumina studied. The d CSR values are in agreement with nanoparticle sizes calculated using self-consistent regularization method applied to nitrogen adsorption data.

Incubation of PbSe Thin Films in a Tin(II) Salt Aqueous Solution: Modification and Ion-Exchange Reactions

Topochemical ion-exchange reactions between solid micro- and nanostructured metal chalcogenides and aqueous salt solutions are generally used for formation of composite structures based on initial metal chalcogenides and products of their ion-exchange transformation. However, ion exchange has promises as a route to obtaining both composites and solid solutions based on the initial and the end chalcogenide phases. With the help of the ion-exchange technique, single-phase films of Pb1–xSnxSe substitutional solid solutions with a tin content up to ∼2 at.%, which are promising for mid- and long-wavelength infrared radiation (IR) optoelectronics, have been obtained at the interface between PbSe polycrystalline thin films and SnCl2 aqueous solutions containing sodium citrate. It has been shown that the pH value and temperature of the reaction system play an important role in the ion-exchange process. Incubation of lead selenide (PbSe) films in a tin(II) salt aqueous solution also leads to their modification with oxygen-containing tin compounds to a depth of ∼3 nm. Differences in the film structure, such as changes in the coherent scattering region sizes and orientation of crystallites along the [220] direction, which arise during the contact with citrate-containing SnCl2 solutions, have also been revealed. For the first time, an idea of the existence of a relatively wide reaction zone of an intragranular topochemical ion-exchange reaction in an aqueous solution, within which substitutional solid solutions can form in micro- and nanostructured systems, has been set forth.