Cognitive Tasks Research Articles

Complementary cognitive roles for D2-MSNs and D1-MSNs during interval timing.

The role of striatal pathways in cognitive processing is unclear. We studied dorsomedial striatal cognitive processing during interval timing, an elementary cognitive task that requires mice to estimate intervals of several seconds and involves working memory for temporal rules as well as attention to the passage of time. We harnessed optogenetic tagging to record from striatal D2-dopamine receptor-expressing medium spiny neurons (D2-MSNs) in the indirect pathway and from D1-dopamine receptor-expressing MSNs (D1-MSNs) in the direct pathway. We found that D2-MSNs and D1-MSNs exhibited distinct dynamics over temporal intervals as quantified by principal component analyses and trial-by-trial generalized linear models. MSN recordings helped construct and constrain a four-parameter drift-diffusion computational model. This model predicted that disrupting either D2-MSNs or D1-MSNs would increase interval timing response times and alter MSN firing. In line with this prediction, we found that optogenetic inhibition or pharmacological disruption of either D2-MSNs or D1-MSNs increased interval timing response times. Pharmacologically disrupting D2-MSNs or D1-MSNs also changed MSN dynamics and degraded trial-by-trial temporal decoding. Together, our findings demonstrate that D2-MSNs and D1-MSNs make complementary contributions to interval timing despite opposing dynamics, implying that striatal direct and indirect pathways work together to shape temporal control of action. These data provide novel insight into basal ganglia cognitive operations beyond movement and have implications for human striatal diseases and therapies targeting striatal pathways.

Measuring general sense of agency: a Japanese adaptation and validation of the sense of agency scale (J-SoAS).

The Sense of Agency (SoA) refers to the individual's perception of control over actions and their subsequent impact on the external environment. SoA encompasses multiple dimensions, such as implicit/local and explicit/general, which can be quantitatively assessed through cognitive tasks and psychometric questionnaires, respectively. The explicit and general aspect of SoA is commonly evaluated using the Sense of Agency Scale (SoAS). This study's objective is to adapt and validate a Japanese version of the Tapal-SoAS. To achieve this, we distributed an online survey in three stages, gathering data from 8,237 Japanese participants aged between their 20s and 60s. Our analysis confirmed the bifactorial structure identified in the original study: the Sense of Positive Agency (SoPA) and the Sense of Negative Agency (SoNA). Metrics pertaining to test-retest reliability, internal consistency, and construct validity reached satisfactory thresholds. Furthermore, the two-factor models demonstrated suitable fit across various age cohorts. The Japanese version of the SoAS (J-SoAS) shows potential for cross-cultural comparisons of explicit and general SoA, particularly between Western and Eastern populations, and among distinct age groups, including young adults and the elderly.

Different montages of transcranial direct current stimulation on postural stability in chronic low back pain patients: A randomized sham-controlled study.

Impairment in both the motor and cognitive aspects of postural control is a critical issue in patients with chronic low back pain (CLBP) who experience high pain anxiety (HPA). This study aimed to compare the effects of cathodal and anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (c-tDCS and a-tDCS) over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) on postural control during cognitive postural tasks in CLBP patients with HPA. This study included 66 patients randomly assigned to three groups: DLPFC a-tDCS, DLPFC c-tDCS, and sham tDCS. All groups received 20 minutes of tDCS, but the stimulation was gradually turned off in the sham group. Postural stability indices were assessed using the Biodex Balance System. Both the a-tDCS and c-tDCS groups showed a significant reduction in most postural stability indices at static and dynamic levels after the interventions (immediately, 24 hours, and one-week follow-up) during the cognitive postural task (P< 0.01). Additionally, there was a significant improvement in postural balance in the a-tDCS and c-tDCS groups compared to the sham tDCS group (P< 0.01). Furthermore, the a-tDCS group showed significantly greater improvement than the c-tDCS group (P< 0.01). Based on the results, both a-tDCS and c-tDCS over the DLPFC had positive effects on postural control during cognitive postural tasks in CLBP patients with HPA.

Eight brain structures mediate the age-related alterations of the working memory: forward and backward digit span tasks.

Working memory (WM) as one of the executive functions is an essential neurocognitive ability for daily life. Findings have suggested that aging is often associated with working memory and neural decline, but the brain structures and resting-state brain networks that mediate age-related differences in WM remain unclear. A sample consisting of 252 healthy participants in the age range of 20 to 70years was used. Several cognitive tasks, including the n-back task and the forward and backward digit span tests were used. Also, resting-state functional imaging, as well as structural imaging using a 3T MRI scanner, were performed, resulting in 85 gray matter volumes and five resting-state networks, namely the anterior and posterior default mode, the right and left executive control, and the salience networks. Also, mediation analyses were used to investigate the role of gray matter volumes and resting-state networks in the relationship between age and WM. Behaviorally, aging was associated with decreased performance in the digit span task. Also, aging was associated with a decreased gray matter volume in 80 brain regions, and with a decreased activity in the anterior default mode network, executive control, and salience networks. Importantly, the path analysis showed that the GMV of the medial orbitofrontal, precentral, parieto-occipital, amygdala, middle occipital, posterior cingulate, and thalamus areas mediated the age-related differences in the forward digit span task, and the GMV of superior temporal gyrus mediated the age-related differences in the backward digit span task. This study identified the brain structures mediating the relationship between age and working memory, and we hope that our research provides an opportunity for early detection of individuals at risk of age-related memory decline.

Effects of visual and auditory cognitive tasks on postural balance in adolescents with intellectual disability: A comparative analysis of trained versus non-trained individuals

This study aimed to investigate the influence of visual and auditory cognitive tasks on postural balance in adolescents with intellectual disabilities (ID). Participants included two groups: a trained group (n = 11) with experience in athletic activities and a sedentary group (n = 14). The experiment used a comparative cross-sectional design, with data collection involving single-task (ST) and Visual dual-task (VDT), and auditory dual-task (ADT) conditions in both firm and foam surface conditions. Cognitive tests included the Working Memory Test (WMT) and the Selective Attention Test (SAT). Results revealed that the trained group demonstrated significantly superior balance performance (p < 0.05). During the SAT, VDT conditions had lower center of pressure (CoP) values than ADT conditions in the sedentary group (p < 0.01), this result was observed in the training group only in the WMT, suggesting greater postural instability during ADT. These findings highlight the complex relationship between cognitive function and motor control in adolescents with ID, highlighting the potential benefits of regular physical activity interventions to improve postural balance abilities in this population.

Influence of presentation duration on filtering of irrelevant stimuli in visual working memory

In environments teeming with distractions, the ability to selectively focus on relevant information is crucial for advanced cognitive processing. Existing research using event-related potential (ERP) technology has shown active suppression of irrelevant stimuli during the consolidation phase of visual working memory (VWM). In previous studies, participants have always been given sufficient time to consolidate VWM, while suppressing distracting information. However, it remains unclear whether the suppression of irrelevant distractors requires continuous effort throughout their presence or whether this suppression is only necessary after the consolidation of task-relevant information. To address this question, our study examines whether distractor suppression is necessary in scenarios where consolidation time is limited. This research investigates the effect of varying presentation durations on the filtering of distractors in VWM. We tasked participants with memorizing two color stimuli and ignoring four distractors, presented for either 50 ms or 200 ms. Using ERP technology, we discovered that the distractor-induced distractor positivity (PD) amplitude is larger during longer presentation durations compared to shorter ones. These findings underscore the significant impact of presentation duration on the efficacy of distractor suppression in VWM, as prolonged exposure results in a stronger suppression effect on distractors. This study sheds light on the temporal dynamics of attention and memory, emphasizing the critical role of stimulus timing in cognitive tasks. These findings provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying VWM and have significant implications for models of attention and memory.

Evaluating mental chronometry as a quantitative measure of information processing in early childhood autism

Objectives Mental chronometry is the scientific study of cognitive processing speed measured by reaction time (RT), which is the elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and an individual’s response. This study aims at measuring the RT among young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and comparing it with normal (typically developing) children. Methods 60 ASD children were selected from different ASD centers, and 60 normal children were selected from different kindergartens for participation in this study. Participants were aged 3–6 years old. The RT was measured using the Fitlight trainer device. The findings were statistically evaluated using independent t-tests and ANOVA tests. Result Significant differences (p < 0.0001) were found between both groups in all tasks, and ASD children demonstrated slower RT compared to the normal group. The RT measured through three senses (visual, auditory, and touch) for ASD and normal were 3.64 ± 2.16, 13.19 ± 2.41(trial), 1835.23 ± 757.95, 697.12 ± 87.83 (second), and 1550.89 ± 499.76, 752.67 ± 124.02 (second) respectively. Conclusion The evaluated RT showed significant impairment in RT among ASD in comparison to normal children and this was true for the three senses. The Fitlight trainer could be used to assess RT and stimulus-response among ASD children in various cognitive tasks. Similar studies, involving larger samples from different areas and involving other sense organs, are indicated to confirm the results.

The Balance N1 Is Larger in Children With Anxiety and Associated With the Error-Related Negativity

BackgroundThe error-related negativity (ERN) is a brain response evoked by mistakes on cognitive tasks that is enhanced with anxiety and can predict the subsequent onset or exacerbation of anxiety in children and adolescents. A physical disturbance to standing balance evokes a brain response called the balance N1 that resembles the ERN in scalp topography and in response to a variety of moderating factors. We recently found that the balance N1 and ERN correlate in amplitude across small adult samples. MethodsIn the current study, we tested the effect of anxiety on the balance N1 in children (ages 9–12 years) with and without diagnosed anxiety disorders (38 children with generalized anxiety, social anxiety, and/or obsessive-compulsive disorder and 50 children without these disorders). We measured the balance N1 in response to sudden release of support from a forward leaning posture, the ERN in response to mistakes on a Go/NoGo task, and anxiety symptoms using child- and parent-report forms of the Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders. ResultsBoth the balance N1 and the ERN were larger in the anxious group. The balance N1 was also associated with both the ERN and parent report of child anxiety symptom severity across individuals. ConclusionsThe higher measurement reliability of the balance N1 than the ERN and greater experimental control over errors suggest that balance paradigms may provide a more powerful method for investigating individual differences in error-related brain activity related to anxiety.

Effect of Motor Interference Therapy on Distress Related to Traumatic Memories: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Feasibility Trial.

Traumatic memories (TM) are a core feature of stress-related disorders, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Treatment is often difficult, and specific pharmacological interventions are lacking. We present a novel non-pharmacological intervention called motor interference therapy (MIT) as a promising alternative for these symptoms. To determine the feasibility of MIT, a brief, audio-delivered, and non-pharmacological intervention that uses cognitive and motor tasks to treat TM. We designed a randomized, double-blind trial. Twenty-eight participants from an outpatient clinic with at least one TM were included to receive either MIT or progressive muscle relaxation (PMR). Spanish versions of the PTSD symptom severity scale (EGS), visual analog scale for TM (TM-VAS), and quality of life (EQ-VAS) were applied prior to intervention, 1 week, and 1 month following intervention. Mean scores on all measures improved from baseline to posttest for both groups. MIT participants showed significantly more positive scores at 1 week and 1 month (TM-VAS baseline: 9.8±0.4; immediate: 6.0±2.0; 1 week: 3.8±3.1 [d=1.57]; 1 month 2.9±2.8 [d=1.93]) than PMR participants on measures of distress due to TM, trauma re-experiencing, anxiety, and a composite measure of PTSD. MIT is a simple, effective, and easy-to-use tool for treating TM and other stress-related symptoms. It requires relatively few resources and could be adapted to many contexts. The results provide proof-of-principle support for conducting future research with larger cohorts and controls to improve clinical effectiveness and research on brief interventions. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03627078.

Child and Family Predictors for Mastery Motivation in Children With Developmental Delays.

Motivation is a key factor for child development, but very few studies have examined child and family predictors of both child task and perceived motivation. Thus, the three aims of this 6-month longitudinal study in preschoolers with global developmental delays (GDD) were to explore: 1) differences between task and perceived motivation in cognitive domain; 2) differences among three domains of perceived motivation: cognitive, gross motor, and social; and 3) early child and family predictors of cognitive task motivation and the three domains of perceived motivation 6 months later. Results indicated that preschoolers with GDD showed higher cognitive task motivation than cognitive perceived motivation, and lower perceived cognitive motivation than the other two perceived motivation domains. Different child and family factors predicted cognitive task motivation and the three domains of perceived motivation. Practitioners should educate caregivers on how to observe children's motivation to enhance children's active participation.

Implications of Developmental 17-OHPC Exposure on the Mesocorticolimbic Serotonergic and Dopaminergic Pathways and Adolescent Mood-Related Behavior in Rats.

The synthetic progestin, 17-α-hydroxyprogesterone caproate (17-OHPC), is administered to pregnant individuals at risk for recurrent preterm birth during a critical period of fetal mesocorticolimbic serotonergic and dopaminergic pathway development. These pathways play an important role in regulating cognitive behaviors later in life. Despite this, there has been very little research regarding the potential long-term effects of 17-OHPC on the behavioral and neural development of exposed children. In rodents, developmental exposure to 17-OHPC disrupts serotonergic and dopaminergic innervation of the medial prefrontal cortex and impairs decision-making in complex cognitive tasks in adulthood. The present study tested the hypothesis that developmental exposure to 17-OHPC similarly disrupts the development of serotonergic and dopaminergic pathways within limbic targets and subsequent mood-related behaviors. Developmental 17-OHPC exposure significantly increased the density of serotonin transporter-IR fibers in CA1, CA2/3, and the suprapyramidal blade of dentate gyrus in hippocampus and significantly reduced the density of TH-IR fibers within the nucleus accumbens shell in males but had no effect in females during adolescence. Irregular microglia activational phenotype and number were also observed in the hippocampus of 17-OHPC-exposed males. Developmental 17-OHPC reduced the latency to immobility in males in the forced swim test but did not affect sucrose consumption in a sucrose preference test. These findings suggest that 17-OHPC exerts sex-specific effects on the development of mesocorticolimbic pathways and mood-related behavior in adolescence and highlight the need to investigate effects in adolescent children.

Mechanical Neural Networks with Explicit and Robust Neurons.

Mechanical computing provides an information processing method to realize sensing-analyzing-actuation integrated mechanical intelligence and, when combined with neural networks, can be more efficient for data-rich cognitive tasks. The requirement of solving implicit and usually nonlinear equilibrium equations of motion in training mechanical neural networks makes computation challenging and costly. Here, an explicit mechanical neuron is developed of which the response can be directly determined without the need of solving equilibrium equations. A training method is proposed to ensure the robustness of the neuron, i.e., insensitivity to defects and perturbations. The explicitness and robustness of the neurons facilitate the assembly of various network structures. Two exemplified networks, a robust mechanical convolutional neural network and a mechanical recurrent neural network with long short-term memory capabilities for associative learning, are experimentally demonstrated. The introduction of the explicit and robust mechanical neuron streamlines the design of mechanical neural networks fulfilling robotic matter with a level of intelligence.

Domain-selective and sex-dependent regulation of learning and memory in mice by GIRK channel activity in CA1 pyramidal neurons of the dorsal hippocampus.

G protein-gated inwardly rectifying K+ (GIRK) channels mediate the postsynaptic inhibitory effect of many neurotransmitters in the hippocampus and are implicated in neurological disorders characterized by cognitive deficits. Here, we show that enhancement or suppression of GIRK channel activity in dorsal CA1 pyramidal neurons disrupted novel object recognition in mice, without impacting open field activity or avoidance behavior. Contextual fear learning was also unaffected, but extinction of contextual fear was disrupted by suppression of GIRK channel activity in male mice. Thus, the strength of GIRK channel activity in dorsal CA1 pyramidal neurons regulates select cognitive task performance in mice.

Pronoun Anaphora and Children's Developing Abilities to Backward Reference in Criminal Cases of Alleged Child Sexual Abuse

ABSTRACTIn child sexual abuse (CSA) testimony, attorneys may ask children questions containing pronoun anaphora (e.g., “Where was your Dad?” “What did he do?” he is a pronoun anaphora for referent, Dad). To answer these questions, children must recall the pronoun's referent and appropriate answer to the question. This may be too complex a cognitive task for young children, especially when there are multiple question‐and‐answer (Q–A) turns between the referent and pronoun, leading to misunderstanding. We examined Q–A pairs containing pronouns in 40 CSA testimonies of 5 to 10‐year‐olds. Many attorneys' questions (24%) contained pronouns. Attorneys averaged 4.11 Q–A turns between the referent and pronoun. With each additional Q–A turn, the likelihood of misunderstanding increased. Children's age was also associated with a significant decrease in misunderstanding, meaning older children exhibited fewer misunderstandings. To reduce misunderstanding, those questioning children should clarify the referent quickly when their question contains pronoun anaphora.

Exercise and Acute Cognitive Enhancement.

Substantial research has explored the effects of a single session of exercise on cognitive performance. Meta-analytic reviews provide summary statistics relative to these effects when the cognitive task is performed while exercising and when performed after exercise. When performed concomitantly the effects of exercise are typically small or negative with the exception of moderate effects for speed of cognitive performance during moderate intensity exercise. When cognitive performance is assessed following the cessation of exercise, the effects are typically positive. When considering the effects following exercise, most studies have focused on executive function and episodic memory as the cognitive outcomes of interest with meta-analyses supporting small-to-moderate benefits. When potential moderators related to exercise parameters or participants characteristics are examined, results suggest that 20 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity exercise consistently benefits performance with larger effects evident for executive function tasks with higher cognitive demands, for long-term memory tasks when exercise is performed prior to information encoding, and when considering individuals with lower initial cognitive performance levels. These observed benefits are likely due to the impacts acute exercise can have on physiological arousal, brain function, and brain neurotrophic factors. Advancements in our understanding of the potential of a single session of exercise to benefit cognitive performance are important for exercise prescription and to inform chronic exercise programs designed to benefit cognition.

Affective and cognitive factors associated with Chinese and Italian children’s arithmetic performance

BackgroundThis study aimed to investigate the cognitive and affective factors associated with cross-cultural differences in arithmetic tasks.MethodsA total of 404 third- and fourth- graders were recruited from China and Italy to complete exact arithmetic, arithmetic estimation and cognitive tasks (i.e., short-term memory, executive functions, and fluid reasoning). Their mathematical anxiety was also measured.ResultsThe results showed that Chinese children performed better than Italian children in both arithmetic tasks and in shifting task. Italian children performed better in visuospatial updating task and reported higher levels of mathematical anxiety than their Chinese peers. Multi-group path analyses showed that the patterns of relations among cognitive factors (i.e., short-term memory, inhibition and shifting), mathematical anxiety, and arithmetic performance were similar across groups. The only exception was that visuospatial updating uniquely predicted arithmetic estimation for Chinese but not for Italian children.ConclusionsChinese children outperformed their Italian peers in the exact arithmetic task, likely due to the greater emphasis on arithmetic fluency in Chinese mathematics education, both in schools and at home. They also had a slight advantage than Italian peers in the arithmetic estimation task. The unique link between updating and arithmetic estimation found in Chinese children but not Italian children suggests that, although arithmetic estimation is not emphasized in the curricula of either country, instruction and practice in exact arithmetic may enhance Chinese children’s efficiency in solving arithmetic estimation problems.

Exploring age-related functional brain changes during audio-visual integration tasks in early to mid-adulthood

The seamless integration of visual and auditory information is a fundamental aspect of human cognition. Although age-related functional changes in Audio-Visual Integration (AVI) have been extensively explored in the past, thorough studies across various age groups remain insufficient. Previous studies have provided valuable insights into age-related AVI using EEG-based sensor data. However, these studies have been limited in their ability to capture spatial information related to brain source activation and their connectivity. To address these gaps, our study conducted a comprehensive audio-visual integration task with a specific focus on assessing the brain maturation effects in various age groups, particularly in early-mid adulthood. We presented visual, auditory, and audio-visual stimuli and recorded EEG data from Young (18–25 years), Transition (26–33 years), and Middle (34–50 years) age cohort healthy participants. We utilized source-based features for the classification of these age groups. We aimed to understand how aging affects brain activation and functional connectivity among hubs during audio-visual tasks. Our findings unveiled diminished levels of brain activation among middle-aged individuals, which escalate when exposed to AVI stimuli. Lower frequency bands showed substantial changes with increasing age during AVI. Our results demonstrated that implementing the k-means elbow method during the AVI task successfully categorized brain regions into five distinct brain networks. Additionally, we observed increased functional connectivity in middle age, particularly in the frontal, temporal, and occipital regions. These results highlight the compensatory neural mechanisms involved in aging during cognitive tasks.

Enhanced “learning to learn” through a hierarchical dual-learning system: the case of action video game players

In contrast to conventional cognitive training paradigms, where learning effects are specific to trained parameters, playing action video games has been shown to produce broad enhancements in many cognitive functions. These remarkable generalizations challenge the conventional theory of generalization that learned knowledge can be immediately applied to novel situations (i.e., immediate generalization). Instead, a new “learning to learn” theory has recently been proposed, suggesting that these broad generalizations are attained because action video game players (AVGPs) can quickly acquire the statistical regularities of novel tasks in order to increase the learning rate and ultimately achieve better performance. Although enhanced learning rate has been found for several tasks, it remains unclear whether AVGPs efficiently learn task statistics and use learned task knowledge to guide learning. To address this question, we tested 34 AVGPs and 36 non-video game players (NVGPs) on a cue-response associative learning task. Importantly, unlike conventional cognitive tasks with fixed task statistics, in this task, cue-response associations either remain stable or change rapidly (i.e., are volatile) in different blocks. To complete the task, participants should not only learn the lower-level cue-response associations through explicit feedback but also actively estimate the high-level task statistics (i.e., volatility) to dynamically guide lower-level learning. Such a dual learning system is modelled using a hierarchical Bayesian learning framework, and we found that AVGPs indeed quickly extract the volatility information and use the estimated higher volatility to accelerate learning of the cue-response associations. These results provide strong evidence for the “learning to learn” theory of generalization in AVGPs. Taken together, our work highlights enhanced hierarchical learning of both task statistics and cognitive abilities as a mechanism underlying the broad enhancements associated with action video game play.

Acute effects of exercise on gaze fixation and affective response inhibition in children with autism spectrum disorder: A randomized cross-over study.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show impairments in response inhibition, especially in socio-emotional contexts. A single aerobic exercise session has the potential to temporarily reduce such impairments as findings from neurotypical children support acute benefits of this exercise type for inhibitory control and emotion recognition. In children with ASD, we therefore aimed to investigate the effects of an aerobic exercise bout on response inhibition in an emotional Go/NoGo task and gaze fixation as possible mechanism underlying changes in performance. Using a cross-over design, 29 patients completed a 20-min aerobic exercise bout at moderate intensity on a cycling ergometer and a control condition in a randomized order. An emotional Go/NoGo task was administered before and after both experimental conditions. Eye-tracking was performed during the cognitive task to assess the duration of gaze fixation of eyes and mouth parts of faces expressing happy or sad emotions. The results support no beneficial effect of exercise on performance on the emotional Go/NoGo task. Instead, patients showed a greater decrease in accuracy on Go trials displaying happy faces in the exercise compared to the control condition. This change was associated with a more pronounced decrease in the fixation duration of the eyes for faces expressing either happy or sad emotions. In conclusion, while a single session of moderately intense aerobic exercise does not affect response inhibition, it temporarily aggravates ASD-specific deficits in the processing of and response to facial emotions.

Online stimulation of the prefrontal cortex during practice increases motor variability and modulates later cognitive transfer: a randomized, double-blinded and sham-controlled tDCS study

The benefits of learning a motor skill extend to improved task-specific cognitive abilities. The mechanistic underpinnings of this motor-cognition relationship potentially rely on overlapping neural resources involved in both processes, an assumption lacking causal evidence. We hypothesize that interfering with prefrontal networks would inhibit concurrent motor skill performance, long-term learning and associated cognitive functions dependent on similar networks (transfer). We conducted a randomised, double-blinded, sham-controlled brain stimulation study using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in young adults spanning over three weeks to assess the role of the prefrontal regions in learning a complex balance task and long-term cognitive performance. Balance training combined with active tDCS led to higher performance variability in the trained task as compared to the sham group, impacting the process of learning a complex task without affecting the learning rate. Furthermore, active tDCS also positively influenced performance in untrained motor and cognitive tasks. The findings of this study help ascertaining the networks directly involved in learning a complex motor task and its implications on cognitive function. Hence, opening up the possibility of harnessing the observed frontal networks involved in resource mobilization in instances of aging, brain lesion/injury or dysfunction.