Cognitive Theory Of Stress Research Articles

Impact of caregiving stressors on elder abuse—examining the mediating role of caregiver coping strategies

Objectives Based on the Caregiving Stress Theory and Cognitive Theory of Stress and Coping, this study examined whether increase in caregiving stressors had an impact on subsequent increase in different forms of elder abuse. Additionally, this study evaluated how these relationships were influenced by caregiver (CG) coping strategies. Method A group of 800 Chinese primary family CGs and their care recipients (CRs) with mild cognitive impairment or mild-to-moderate dementia were analyzed. Participatory dyads were assessed and followed for 2 years. Structural Equation Models were used to test the associations among caregiving stressors, CG coping strategies, and elder abuse. Results Increase in caregiving stressors (ie CR decreased cognitive function, neuropsychiatric symptoms, and functional impairment) significantly increased the level of subsequent physical abuse, psychological abuse, and neglect. In addition, the associations between caregiving stressors and different forms of elder abuse as stated above was mediated by CG dysfunctional coping strategies. Conclusion This study highlights the varying impact of caregiving stressors on different types of elder abuse and emphasizes the role of CG coping strategies in mediating these relationships. The findings provide valuable insights for the development of intervention protocols targeting both caregiving stressors and CG coping strategies to prevent elder abuse.

Growing Up With Temporarily Absent Parents: The Case of Southeast Asian Young Adults

This research aimed to gain insights into the growing-up experience of Southeast Asian young adults with temporarily absent parents, a phenomenon prevalent due to economic migration and employment opportunities abroad. Utilizing a case study approach and employing thematic analysis, the study is framed by five pivotal theoretical lenses on Attachment Theory; Psychosocial Development Theory (Erikson, 1950) ;Cognitive Stress Theory (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984); Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) that explores the interaction between cultural norms and family dynamics; and Self- Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2009). The study reveals key themes as Understanding Growing Up with Temporarily Absent-Parents, Understanding Independence, Shared Identity (Pakikipagkapwa), Relational Dynamics, Personal Responsibility, Self-Managing Emotions, Self-Management, and Support Networks. These themes collectively paint a comprehensive picture of the journey towards self- reliance, emotional resilience, and the vital role of support systems. The findings enrich developmental psychology and family studies, offering significant insights for the development of supportive policies and programs for families with temporarily absent parents in this culturally rich region.

Unmasking the influence of employees’ coping strategies on workplace bullying

ABSTRACT Bullying is known to impair employees’ emotional state; however, the employees’ coping strategies used to manage stress may contribute to employees’ emotional state and their exposure to workplace bullying. Hence, drawing from the Cognitive Theory of Stress and Coping and the Three-Way Model of Workplace Bullying, our study hypothesized a link between coping strategies and exposure to workplace bullying. We proposed that active coping (problem-oriented and seeking support) is negatively related to workplace bullying exposure, while passive coping (avoidance-oriented) is positively associated with bullying exposure. Emotional exhaustion was posited to mediate this association by decreasing the effect of the active and increasing the passive strategy. Results from employing PLS-SEM on data from 440 participants indicated that avoidance-oriented coping influences bullying exposure and emotional exhaustion positively. Problem-oriented coping mitigates emotional exhaustion with no impact on bullying exposure. While problem-oriented coping negatively affects emotional exhaustion, it demonstrates no effect on bullying exposure. The discussion delves into theoretical insights, practical implications, and paths for future research.

Psycho-Social Factors Associated with Intimacy Needs in Divorced and Widowed Older Chinese Women.

The rapidly ageing population, the growing rate of divorce, and the longer life expectancy of women compared with men have resulted in a large proportion of older Chinese women being alone. The sexual health and intimacy needs of this group of women are ignored due to traditional Chinese cultural values that undermine older adults’ needs for sex and intimacy, and the subordinate position of women in society. The present study used a quantitative survey method to investigate bio-psycho-social factors associated with divorced and widowed older Chinese women’s sexual health and intimacy needs in two cities in Shanghai and Wuhan. The conceptual framework of this study was guided by cognitive stress theory, attachment theory, gender theory, socioemotional selectivity theory, objectification theory, and activity theory. We adopted a model involving demographic, biological, psychological, and social factors to unearth the mechanism influencing divorced and widowed older Chinese women’s sexual health and intimacy needs. Data were collected between October 2020 and March 2021 via face-to-face surveys. A convenience sample of 278 (N = 278) divorced and widowed older Chinese women was recruited (166 in Shanghai and 112 in Wuhan). Sexual health and intimacy needs were associated with current relationship status, financial status, physical health, attachment style, neuroticism, mental health, social support, prior marital conflict, and gender norm attitude. Sexual behaviour was associated with age, number of children, financial status, physical health, attachment style, neuroticism, prior marital conflict, gender norm attitude, sexual knowledge, sexual attitude, and intimacy attitude as predictors. Most participants in this study seemed to have found new intimate partners with whom to continue participating in sexual activities after their divorce or widowhood. The present study is one of the first examples of empirical research to examine the sexual health and intimacy needs of older Chinese women who are divorced or widowed. The findings generated by this study will inform the design and implementation of appropriate social programs for this demographic, and provide invaluable insight for social workers, educators, sex therapists, healthcare professionals, community workers, and policymakers working with this population.

Cognitive theory of stress and farmers’ responses to the COVID 19 shock; a model to assess coping behaviors with stress among farmers in southern Iran

Better understanding the capacity of farmers to react to the COVID-19 pandemic shock requires analyzing their coping mechanisms. This study investigates the relationship between coping style and coping behaviors with COVID-19, identifying the psychological factors affecting them based on the cognitive theory of stress. Perceived government support is added to the original model as a predictor for coping style and behavior. Cross sectional survey data was collected among farmers living in Dashtestan county of Bushehr province in southern Iran (N = 377). To determine the strength of the model, structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed. We find that demand appraisal and perceived collective efficacy have a positive, direct, and significant effect on coping style and an indirect effect on behaviors. Coping style and perceived government support are significantly related to behavior. The research model predicts 63% and 31% of variance changes in coping style and behavior, respectively. The results of this study provide empirical evidence on how people cope with the COVID-19 shock as well as useful information for designing and implementing health and social programs and policies in the agricultural communities.

Explaining farmers’ response to climate change-induced water stress through cognitive theory of stress: an Iranian perspective

This study investigates the underlying causes of farmers’ adaptation responses in the face of the negative impacts of climate change on water resources in Iran. We applied the theory of cognitive stress to examine and clarify how farmers respond to climate change-induced water stress as an environmental stressor, using a multistage, clustered, random sampling method of farmers (n = 250) in a survey conducted in southwestern Iran. Our analyses revealed that both demand appraisal and self-efficacy are significant predictors of problem-focused coping, which, in turn, influenced farmers’ adaptation responses. The theory accounted for 31% of the variance in farmers’ problem-focused coping behavior, which, in turn, accounts for around 39% of the variance in adaptation responses. We anticipate that the findings will result in recommendations for policymakers and advisors to extension organizations and that it will ultimately be used to inform strategies to encourage effective adaptation responses to water scarcity among Iranian farmers.

COPING STRATEGIES AND LIFE EXPECTANCY OF PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) IN BAMENDA MEZAM DIVISION NORTH WEST REGION OF CAMEROON: A PEDAGOGIC PERSPECTIVE

The life expectancy of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) who attend the treatment center of the Bamenda Regional Hospital has been of interest to many educationists. Coping strategies can have a relationship with their lifestyle. The argument for the study anchored on the attribution theory (Bernard Weiner, 1990), Lazarus’ Cognitive Theory of Stress (1966), the human ecological theory (1979). A cross-sectional descriptive survey research design with a mixed approach was used with a sample of 165 PLWHA who attend the treatment center of the Bamenda Regional Hospital. Data obtained were analyzed descriptively and inferentially. Findings showed that there is a very significant and positive relationship between emotional approach coping and life expectancy of people living with HIV/AIDS (P<0.001). Similarly, findings on hypothesis two showed that there is a very significant and positive relationship between problem focus coping and life expectancy of people living with HIV/AIDS (P<0.001). Again, findings on hypothesis three showed that there is a very significant and positive relationship between engagement and disengagement coping and life expectancy of people living with HIV/AIDS (P<0.001). Lastly, findings on hypothesis four showed that that there is a very significant and positive relationship between meaning focus coping and life expectancy of people living with HIV/AIDS (P<0.001). The study concludes that coping strategies have positive effects on people living with HIV/AIDS. The findings recommend that, people living with HIV/AIDS should be encouraged to be resilient and agentic. This will help them to live well and increase life expectancy rate. Article visualizations:

COPING STRATEGIES AND MODELS OF OVERCOMING POST-STRESS CONDITIONS

The article is devoted to the research of coping strategies on the adaptation process. Actions associated with the COVID 19 pandemic touched many areas of life. They provided increased requirements for human mental activity, creating additional stresses, which led to an increase in neuropsychiatric disorders. Models of overcoming post-stress states are considered. The role of external and internal factors in the formation and overcoming of post-stress states and disorders of adaptation is analyzed in the article. In the process of studying the underlying patterns and mechanisms of adaptation to normal life, two psychological models of overcoming post-stress states were identified: psychodynamic and cognitive. The psychodynamic model notes that successful adaptation of personality requires awareness of all aspects of traumatic experience and integration through the scheme "traumatic stress - negation - relapse - acceptance". The cognitive model is a cognitive theory of stress, that is, a cognitive assessment of a person's most traumatic event, and himself in it. Three types of assessment were proposed to determine a person's response to a traumatic event: primary, secondary stress assessment, and reassessment. Many researchers consider the impact of stress adaptation to be one of the leading causes of disorders of adaptation. Also, the manifestations of adaptation disorders are greatly exacerbated by the simultaneous complex action of several stressors. The severity of active stressors does not always correlate with the severity of adaptation disorders, as personality traits and cultural and social norms and values contribute to the response to stress. Also, the features of the development of these disorders of adaptation disorders depend on the features of cognitive processes, personal resources of the individual involved in their regulation.

Coping with change in rural landscapes: The psychological stress of rural residents experiencing unconventional gas developments

Rural landscapes in many parts of the world are experiencing increasing pressure from competing uses. One particular use, unconventional natural gas extraction, has received considerable attention over the past decade owing to its rapid growth and associated impacts on rural landscapes. This study examined how a sample of Australian rural residents experienced the processes of psychological stress induced by a coal seam gas project that created perceived undesirable changes to resources they valued. Its effect on residents’ psychological well-being slowly unfolded over several years. We deconstructed the stress processes by investigating primary appraisal, secondary appraisal, and subsequent emotional and coping responses guided by the cognitive theory of stress and coping. Primary appraisal measured how the impacts of change on personal and communal resources were assessed while secondary appraisal gauged the options available to individuals to cope. Our results show that when primary appraisal alerts individuals of resource loss, negative emotions are more likely experienced. Such an appraisal directly drives engagement in eight coping strategies classified into four categories: problem-focused, support-based, emotion-focused, and maladaptive coping. It also motivates coping indirectly except for one strategy of emotion-focused coping mediated by negative emotions. While secondary appraisal also directly contributes to four coping strategies that each pertains to one of the four coping categories, it has no effect on negative emotions and four remaining coping strategies that are emotion-focused and maladaptive. These findings shed light on our understanding of the psychological consequences of undesirable change of land use on rural communities. Implications for land use policy are discussed with an emphasis on the need for considering a holistic perspective on the multi-dimensional nature of rural resources valued by community residents and establishing procedural fairness and legitimacy for proposed changes.

Bereavement Experience of Female Military Spousal Suicide Survivors: Utilizing Lazarus’ Cognitive Stress Theory

Reports indicate that suicides in the U.S. military surged to a record number of 349 in 2013. This figure far exceeds the 295 American combat deaths in Afghanistan in 2012 and compares with the 201 military suicides in 2011 (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2013). Some private experts predict that the trend will worsen this year (Miles, 2010).From 2008-2010, the Army reported the highest number of suicides (n = 182) among active duty troops; whereas the Navy and Air Force reported 60 and 59 respectively (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2013). The Marine Corps had the largest percentage increase in suicides in a period of 2 years (Lamorie, 2011). U.S. veterans accounted for 20% of the more than 30,000 suicide deaths in the United States in 2009. Between 2003 and 2009, approximately 6,000 veterans committed suicide annually, an average of 18 suicides each day (Congressional Quarterly, 2010; Miles, 2010). During the 2009 fiscal year, 707 members of the veteran population committed suicide, and another 10,665 made unsuccessful suicide attempts (Miles, 2010). Certain experiences of military service members (e.g., exposure to violence, act of killing the enemy, risk of injury, exposure to trauma) increase suicidal tendencies (Zamorski, 2011).For every person who completes suicide, an estimated 20 people experience trauma related to the death (NIMH, 2010). This suggests that from the 349 military suicides in 2013, approximately 7,000 people have experienced related trauma. Suicide survivors are family members and friends whose lives significantly change because of the suicide of a loved one (Andriessen, 2009; Jordan & McIntosh, 2011; McIntosh, 1993). Survivors of suicide may have higher risk for a variety of psychological complications, including elevated rates of complicated grief and even reactive suicide (Agerbo, 2005).It is also important to note that suicide survivors might not differ significantly from other bereaved groups regarding general mental health, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and anxiety (Sveen & Walby, 2008). Examining the impact of suicide on surviving military family members may provide important information on minimizing negative consequences, including possible survivor suicide.Military deaths are often sudden, unexpected, traumatic and/or violent in nature, and the family is conditioned to anticipate these types of deaths. In contrast, death by suicide is not anticipated and might not be handled well among military families (Martin, Ghahramanlou-Holloway, Lou, & Tucciarone, 2009). Suicide within the military culture is a traumatic as well as a unique experience. Service members and their families struggle with the visible and invisible wounds of war and the aftermath that combat deaths leave for the survivors. When a service member's trauma leads to suicide, the military community is less trained and conditioned to process the grief than when death occurs as a direct result of military service (Zhang & Jia, 2009).Stress plays a role in the grief process within the military culture when it relates to suicide. The chief identifying feature of military culture is warfare, which in turn leads to the claiming of human lives (Siebrecht, 2011). Siebrecht argued that bereavement can only be overcome if people adopt a more rational attitude and grant death its natural place in life. Association with the military ensures that most families will have to experience some form of bereavement and many forms of loss during times of war (Audoin-Rouzeau & Becker, 2002). Military men and woman are less equipped than the general population when it comes to their culture's acceptance of outward demonstration or sharing of the emotional experience of grief (Doka, 2005).StigmaHistorically, the stigma of suicide has been present in society (Cvinar, 2005). The biggest obstacles that families with members who have completed suicide confront are acts of informal social disapproval. …

Supervisors' exceedingly difficult goals and abusive supervision: The mediating effects of hindrance stress, anger, and anxiety

SummaryThis study examined a contextual predictor of abusive supervision. Specifically, we hypothesized that job goals that are judged by supervisors to be exceedingly difficult to attain is a predictor of subordinate‐rated abusive supervisory behavior. Drawing on the cognitive theory of stress, we hypothesized that exceedingly difficult job goals assigned to supervisors predict abusive behavior directed at their subordinates, as mediated by the supervisors' hindrance stress and emotions (e.g., anger and anxiety). We collected data from employees and their immediate supervisors to test this theoretical model (N = 215 matched pairs). The results of this multisource field study provided support for the hypothesized relationships. In particular, assigned job goals that were appraised by supervisors as exceedingly difficult to attain predicted their hindrance stress. Also, hindrance stress was positively related to anger and anxiety, which in turn predicted abusive supervision. Theoretically, these findings contribute to research on goal setting, stress, and abusive supervision. In addition, these findings are practically important in that they provide suggestions on how to minimize abusive supervision in organizations. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Anxiety and depression in care homes in Malta and Australia: part 1

This cross-sectional comparative study, conducted in two phases, assessed the levels of and factors contributing towards anxiety and depression in older people in residential homes in Malta and Australia. A mixed-method approach was adopted and the cognitive theory of stress and coping (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) guided the study. Maltese residents were recruited from four church-run homes in Malta and Australia and two state residences in Malta. Response rates were high, with phase 1 at 94.48% (n = 137; mean age = 72.8 years) and phase 2 at 89.4%, (n = 42, mean age = 71.9 years). All the residents were mobile, were Roman Catholics and had lived in the homes for at least 6 months. In phase 1, quantitative data was collected using a demographic questionnaire and the hospital anxiety and depression scale. Normal ranges of anxiety and depression were found (anxiety: mean = 3.53-4.35; depression: mean = 2.67-4.72). No significant differences were found in anxiety and depression between countries, demographic characteristics and some other variables. The only significant difference lay in depression by mobility (F = 5.263; P = 0.006; df = 2), with wheelchair users scoring the highest mean (mean = 6.77; SD = 5.847; P = 0.007). Mobility was linked to functional abilities, which appeared to control anxiety and depression. Recommendations are made for rehabilitation and cross-cultural longitudinal research to investigate other influencing variables such as spirituality and caring relationships.

Immunological and neuroimaging biomarkers of complicated grief

Complicated grief (CG) is a disorder marked by intense and persistent yearning for the deceased, in addition to other criteria. The present article reviews what is known about the immunologic and neuroimaging biomarkers of both acute grief and CG, Attachment theory and cognitive stress theory are reviewed as they pertain to bereavement, as is the biopsychosocial model of CG. Reduced immune cell function has been replicated in a variety of bereaved populations. The regional brain activation to grief cues frequently includes the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and insula, and also the posterior cingulate cortex. Using theory to point to future research directions, we may eventually learn which biomarkers are helpful in predicting CG, and its treatment.

Wind power or uranium mine: Appraisal of two energy-related environmental changes in a local context

This study explores factors associated with the individual's appraisal of anticipated environmental changes caused by energy production facilities. The study took place in a Swedish village where exploratory drilling, that could eventually lead to a uranium mine, was being conducted at the same time as a wind farm was approved. Results from the survey, which included the total population, were interpreted in the light of cognitive stress theory. Most residents thought that the wind farm would have a positive impact on the village but that the uranium drilling would have a negative impact; these opinions were closely related to attitudes towards wind and nuclear power. Perceiving the wind farm as positive was further predicted by young age, high education, being an ordinary rather than a committed recycler and having attended a meeting about the wind farm. A negative view of uranium drilling was predicted by the individual valuing closeness to nature, being a recycler, and having attended the uranium meeting. Psychological factors such as concerns for the environment (manifested as pro-environmental behaviour), valuing closeness to nature, and involvement impinge on the appraisal process and should be considered when new developments are presented.

El doble procesamiento paralelo en situación de crisis: fundamentación motivacional

El objetivo de este artículo es presentar un modelo cognitivo-conductual que permite explicar la situación de crisis (SC) en términos de intensa afectación motivacional, y sustentar a partir de ahí una propuesta de Intervención Motivacional Breve (IMB) en SC. La SC se conceptualiza como un momento de estrés severo, acompañado de una profunda alteración en las motivaciones sustanciales de la persona, con predominancia de motivaciones de escape y de evitación generadas por el dolor emocional producido; dicho estado exige a la persona la implementación de estrategias de afrontamiento centradas en el manejo del daño objetivo, así como en la búsqueda del alivio emocional, consideración que da origen a la denominación “Doble Procesamiento Paralelo en SC” (DPP-SC). La intervenció breve se entiende como la afectació de los procesos motivacionales para facilitar que la persona adopte decisiones de afrontamiento, emocional e instrumental, que la coloquen en direcció al alivio emocional o a la solució de la crisis. Se concluye con una sítesis acerca de las tres fuentes fundamentales que se toman de la literatura psicolóica para inspirar el diseñ del DPP-SC: El doble procesamiento paralelo extendido, la teorí cognitiva sobre el estré y el afrontamiento y la formulació por niveles en terapia cognitiva.

The role of perceived control in the relationship between job insecurity and psychosocial outcomes: moderator or mediator?

AbstractThe aim of the current study was to address the intervening role of perceived control in the job insecurity–strain relationship. Two alternatives were investigated: (1) perceived control as a buffer of the relationship between job insecurity and outcome variables (i.e. job satisfaction, organizational commitment, psychological distress and turnover intentions); and (2) perceived control as a mediator of the relationship between job insecurity and the outcomes. Cross‐sectional data of 211 employees were used to test the hypotheses. The results showed that perceived control did not buffer the relationship between job insecurity, and job satisfaction, organizational commitment, psychological distress and turnover intentions. However, perceived control was found to partially mediate the association between job insecurity and these outcomes. The results are explained using the cognitive theory of stress and coping of Lazarus and Folkman, and suggest that job insecurity is stressful because it decreases the experience of control. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Health Inequality in Nordic Welfare States - More Inequality or the Wrong Measures?

Several empirical papers have indicated that the health inequalities in the Nordic welfare states seem to be at least as high as health inequalities in other European countries even if the Nordic states have a more egalitarian income structure. This is in contrast to standard economic theory that predicts that income equality should lead to health equality everything else equal. We argue that there may be a straightforward explanation why Nordic countries appear to have a steeper health gradient than other countries. Health and income are related, and the correlation between income and health will be weaker the more noise there is in terms of other determinants of income. If the Nordic countries have succeeded in reducing the impacts of other determinants of income, like social class, then the correlation between income and health will be stronger in the Nordic countries. This story also holds for other measures of health inequality. However, if the causality is running from income to health, there may be a reason why health inequality is higher in more egalitarian states based on cognitive stress theory. We argue however, that even in this case the difference between Nordic states and the rest of Europe may be a result of poor measures.

The relationship between strong motivation to work, “workaholism”, and health

The aims of the present study were to examine (1) psychometric properties of Spence and Robbins’ measures of the components of workaholism and (2) relations between workaholism and health-related outcomes [job stress, burnout, work engagement, and subjective health complaints (SHC)]. Two hundred and thirty-five bank employees completed questionnaires measuring workaholism, job stress, burnout, work engagement, and SHC. Factor analyses suggested a two-factor model of workaholism, “Drive” and “Enjoyment of Work”. There were significant relations between workaholism subscales and SHC, job stress, burnout, and work engagement. The “Drive” subscale correlated positively with job stress and SHC, and marginally with burnout and work engagement. The “Enjoyment of Work” subscale correlated negatively with job stress, burnout, and SHC. The results showed that a two-factor model of workaholism provided the best fit for Norwegian data, supported a differentiation of enthusiastic and nonenthusiastic workaholic features, and were related in predictable ways to SHC, burnout, and work engagement, as predicted from contemporary cognitive stress theory.

The possible benefits of difficulty: How stress can increase and decrease subjective well‐being

This study explores the effects of stress, trauma, coping and growth orientation on subjective well-being. Based on cognitive stress theory, it was hypothesized that adversity may contribute to increased or decreased well-being, depending on the subsequent meaning these experiences are given. Survey data from Norwegian UN/NATO veterans (N= 142) showed that stress and well-being were negatively associated (r=-0.20, p < 0.05) at the level of zero-order correlations. However, a full structural equation model revealed that the effect of stress on well-being was mediated positively through a problem-focused coping process combined with a growth component. Stress was negatively mediated through an avoidant-focused coping process and a distress component. The effect from stress was fully mediated in the model. The hypothesis that stress can produce both increased and decreased subjective well-being was confirmed.

The prediction of bereavement outcome: Development of an integrative risk factor framework

We propose an integrative risk factor framework to enhance understanding of individual differences in adjustment to bereavement and to encourage more systematic analysis of factors contributing to bereavement outcome (e.g., examination of interactions between variables and establishing pathways in the adaptation process). The examination of individual differences in adaptation to bereavement is essential for practical (e.g. targeting high risk individuals for intervention) and theoretical (e.g. testing the validity of theoretical claims about sources of differences) purposes. And yet, existing theoretical approaches have not led to systematic empirical examination and empirical studies in the current literature are fraught with shortcomings. Derived from Cognitive Stress Theory [Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer] and the stressor-specific Dual Process Model of Coping with Bereavement [Stroebe, M. S., & Schut, H. A. W. (1999). The dual process model of coping with bereavement: Rationale and description. Death Studies, 23, 197–224], the framework incorporates an analysis of stressors, intra/interpersonal risk/protective factors, and appraisal and coping processes that are postulated to impact on outcome. Advantages of using the approach are outlined. Challenges in undertaking such research are addressed.