Cognitive Hypothesis Research Articles

Effects of Task Complexity and L2 Proficiency on Functional Adequacy in L2 Writing

ABSTRACTThis study examined how task complexity and second language (L2) proficiency impact functional adequacy (FA) among Chinese university English learners. Eighty‐nine Chinese undergraduate students from two first‐year and two third‐year classes participated in the study. Each participant completed two timed argumentative writing tasks with varying degrees of task complexity manipulated by altering the number of argument elements and reasoning demands, drawing upon the cognition hypothesis. The task‐complexity manipulations were validated by post‐task questionnaires and expert judgments. Learners’ productions were assessed by two experts using the FA rating scale. Results showed as task complexity increased, there was a significant decrease in scores across all four dimensions of FA. Additionally, a positive effect of L2 proficiency was observed on scores in two dimensions of FA, that is, comprehensibility and coherence and cohesion. However, this was not the case for content and task requirements. Importantly, the analysis revealed a significant interaction effect between task complexity and L2 proficiency, indicating that the impact of task complexity on FA varied depending on the learners’ proficiency levels. Specifically, higher proficiency learners demonstrated greater adaptability to complex tasks compared to their lower proficiency counterparts. These findings highlight the significance of manipulating task complexity and considering learners’ L2 proficiency in teaching L2 writing to enhance learners’ FA performance.

A Review of the Effect of Task Complexity on Syntactic Complexity in Second Language Writing in China

In the 1990s, research on task complexity became prevalent and gradually scholars have investigated how task complexity of writing tasks affects second language learners' writing performance. Skehan synthesized a measure of learners' proficiency in second language writing in terms of complexity, accuracy and fluency (CAF) of linguistic output. Among them, syntactic complexity, which refers to the range of variation and complexity of the form of linguistic output, has received more and more attention from researchers of second language writing in recent years, and has become one of the hot spots of research in the field of second language acquisition. This paper relies on the CNKI to search for studies on effect of task complexity on syntactic complexity of L2 writing in China, and through summarizing, organizing and analyzing these literatures, it can be found that the theoretical guidance of existing studies is mainly based on the cognitive hypothesis, supplemented by the Limited Attentional capacity Model. Researchers have varied task complexity based on the resource-directing and resource-dispersing to investigate its effect on syntactic complexity, but the findings have not been consistent, which may be due to geographic pedagogical differences or subtle differences in study design.

The Interactive Effects of Rejection and Rumination on Diurnal Cortisol among Adolescent Girls: A Preliminary Daily Diary Study.

The perseverative cognition hypothesis stipulates that rumination (repetitive, passive, uncontrollable negative thinking) prolongs the experience of a stressor which impacts stress physiology. In line with this hypothesis, we proposed that in response to real-life experiences of social rejection, adolescent girls who ruminate would show a blunted diurnal cortisol slope the next day relative to girls who do not ruminate. We also examined the effects of social rejection and rumination on waking cortisol levels and the cortisol awakening response. Participants were (n = 50) adolescent girls (mean age = 13.30, SD = 2.34) who varied on psychiatric risk and provided saliva samples 4 times a day for 3 days, as well as, daily diary reports of social rejection and rumination. A lagged multilevel model was utilized to examine the interactive effects of rejection and rumination on diurnal cortisol. There was a significant interaction between social rejection and rumination. Specifically, rumination following social rejection was associated with a flatter diurnal cortisol slope. In the absence of rumination, social rejection was marginally associated with a steeper diurnal cortisol slope. The effects for waking cortisol levels and the cortisol awakening response were null. Findings support the perseverative cognition hypothesis and suggest that cognitive mechanisms such as rumination can impact stress physiology.

Implementing collaborative pre-task planning with intermediate Arab EFL learners in a blended, task-based environment: A mixed methods study

Pre-task planning (PTP) has received scant attention in L2 writing and task-based research, especially pertaining to its effect on the writing production of intermediate, school L2 learners. This study examines mainly the influence of implementing collaborative PTP on the writing production of Arab EFL learners within blended, task-based environment. Following a mixed methods experimental design, intermediate L2 learners were distributed in planning and no-planning conditions and conducted a pre- and post-test. Students in both groups composed a number of argumentative essays over a 10-week period, which were analyzed for complexity, accuracy, fluency, ideational content, and lexical richness. Results from independent samples t-test and univariant analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) indicated several significant differences between participants' performance on the post-test compared to the pre-test but with differential effects in terms of the five measures. Analyses revealed that PTP didn't promote all the measures simultaneously, but it mainly assisted L2 writers produce enhanced content planning (idea generation, lexis, and argumentation) and resulted in greater fluency and overall improved organization and writing quality. Results of classroom observations supported the statistical results and showed that blended, task-based PTP positively impacted students' writing performance, motivation, self-confidence, and learning independence, and thus created a positive, engaging L2 writing environment. The study results were interpreted through the lens of cognitive processing theories, particularly Skehan's (1998, 2014) Limited Attentional Capacity Model and Robinson's (2001) Cognition Hypothesis, providing support to Robinson's position that PTP led to greater fluency. The use of data and methodological triangulation in this study offers new insights into the role of PTP in the L2 writing process, especially with intermediate, school learners in an authentic classroom setting, and thus contributes to the inconsistent results of previous PTP studies (Ellis, 2021).

The effects of task complexity on linguistic complexity and perception in English native speakers’ and L2 speakers’ argumentative writing

This study investigates how task complexity affects native speakers’ and second language (L2) learners’, and experts’ perceptions of task difficulty in writing tasks. It also explores how task complexity influences English native speakers’ and L2 learners’ linguistic complexity in their writing. Ninety participants performed one simple and one complex argumentative writing task manipulated by task complexity (± elements and reasoning demands) and counterbalanced. Their essays were analyzed using linguistic complexity metrics. The results showed that English native speakers, L2 learners, and experts perceived the complex task as requiring more mental effort, being more stressful, and creating more planning and writing time pressure than the simple task. The native speakers demonstrated greater overall linguistic complexity than the L2 learners in the two writing tasks. However, both English native speakers and L2 learners produced longer T-units and more diverse vocabulary in the complex task than in the simple task but also produced more syntactically similar structures in the complex task. Significant interaction effects of group (L1 and L2) and task (± elements and reasoning demands) were found for five linguistic complexity metrics. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed in light of Robinson’s cognition hypothesis and Hayes’s writing model.

ИДИОМАТИЧЕСКОЕ ЗНАЧЕНИЕ КАК КОГНИТИВНЫЙ КОМПЛЕКС (НА ПРИМЕРЕ АНГЛИЙСКИХ ИДИОМ)

The idiomatic meaning of phraseological units is a complex informative unity, which causes difficulties in its study. Traditional linguistics considers this meaning to be unmotivated by its structural elements, but the cognitive approach allows us to reveal its cognitive motivation. In cognitive linguistics idiomaticity can be represented as a cognitive complex. It consists of interaction between source-concepts (B) and target-concepts (A), which can be metaphoric (model A IS B) or metonymic (model B FOR A), or even metaphtonymic in cases when it is difficult to distinguish between metaphor or metonymy. The third element of the cognitive complex is our conventional knowledge of the world based on our perception, encyclopaedic knowledge or cultural preferences. It helps to prove the correctness of the analysis and the interpretation of the results. In this article we apply the cognitive analysis to two English idioms with lexemes denoting parts of the body. Such idioms better illustrate the cognitive hypothesis of the embodied mind. The aim of the conducted research is to show the idiomatic meanings of the two idioms as cognitive complexes which consist of metaphor, metonymy and our empirical knowledge. The result of the research is: in the cognitive complex of the first idiom to have a finger in every pie we can single out 5 models of metaphor and 4 models of metonymy as the cognitive interaction between the source-concepts FINGER, PIE, EVERY and the target-concepts INVOLVEMENT, ACTIVITIES. The cognitive complex of the idiom to keep one’s nose clean consists of the interaction between the source-concepts KEEP, NOSE, CLEAN and the target-concepts TO BEHAVE WELL, TO STAY OUT OF TROUBLE, which results in 2 models of metaphor and 5 models of metonymy. So, the cognitive analysis gives deep and overall understanding of the complex structure of idiomatic meaning. We use our empirical knowledge to interpret the interaction between concepts.

High-dose Agomelatine Combined with Haloperidol Decanoate Improves Cognition, Downregulates MT2, Upregulates D5, and Maintains Krüppel-like Factor 9 But Alters Cardiac Electrophysiology.

Haloperidol decanoate (HD) has been implicated in cognitive impairment. Agomelatine (AGO) has been claimed to improve cognition. We aimed at investigating the effects of HD + low- or high-dose AGO on cognition, verifying the melatonergic/dopaminergic to the cholinergic hypothesis of cognition and exploring relevant cardiovascular issues in adult male Wistar albino rats. HD + high-dose AGO prolonged the step-through latency by +61.47% (P < 0.0001), increased the time spent in bright light by +439.49% (P < 0.0001), reduced the time spent in dim light by -66.25% (P < 0.0001), and increased the percent of alternations by +71.25% (P < 0.0001), despite the reductions in brain acetylcholine level by -10.67% (P < 0.0001). Neurodegeneration was minimal, while the mean power frequency of the source wave was reduced by -23.39% (P < 0.05). Concurrently, the relative expression of brain melatonin type 2 receptors was reduced by -18.75% (P < 0.05), against increased expressions of dopamine type 5 receptors by +22.22% (P < 0.0001) and angiopoietin-like 4 by +119.18% (P < 0.0001). Meanwhile, electrocardiogram (ECG) demonstrated inverted P wave, reduced P wave duration by -36.15% (P < 0.0001) and PR interval by -19.91% (P < 0.0001), prolonged RR interval by +27.97% (P < 0.05), increased R wave amplitude by +523.15% (P < 0.0001), and a depressed ST segment and inverted T wave. In rats administered AGO, HD, or HD+ low-dose AGO, Alzheimer's disease (AD)-like neuropathologic features were more evident, accompanied by extensive ECG and neurochemical alterations. HD + high-dose AGO enhances cognition but alters cardiac electrophysiology. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Given the issue of cognitive impairment associated with HD and the claimed cognitive-enhancing activity of AGO, combined high-dose AGO with HD improved cognition of adult male rats, who exhibited minimal neurodegenerative changes. HD+ high-dose AGO was relatively safe regarding triggering epileptogenesis, while it altered cardiac electrophysiology. In the presence of low acetylcholine, the melatonergic/dopaminergic hypothesis, added to angiopoietin-like 4 and Krüppel-like factor 9, could offer some clue, thus offering novel targets for pharmacologic manipulation of cognition.

LANGUAGE LEARNING THROUGH TASK-BASED SYNCHRONOUS COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION

A limited number of studies have been conducted on the influence of task features on language production in computer-mediated communication (CMC) environments despite the role of tasks on the language production of L2 students who are mostly non-native speakers (NNSs). Among the prominent hypotheses on the relationship between tasks and language production are the Cognition Hypothesis and the Trade-Off Hypothesis. The current study examined the effect of task structure on student language production in terms of syntactic complexity and fluency in CMC environments. A one-shot design study involved 46 NNS undergraduates in Malaysia and Japan. The respondents were divided into two groups: (1) respondents who performed the task with task structure (+TS) and (2) respondents who performed the task without task structure (-TS). The data were then analysed using a t-test. The present study supported the hypothesis positing that the utilisation of +TS contributes to an increase in syntactic complexity among NNSs, as well as the hypothesis proposing that the use of +TS results in improved fluency. The results also suggest examining additional variables related to task difficulty when designing tasks for CMC environments to assess their effects on fluency and syntactic complexity.

The role of embodied cognition in action language comprehension in L1 and L2

In this study we carried out a behavioral experiment comparing action language comprehension in L1 (Italian) and L2 (English). Participants were Italian native speakers who had acquired the second language late (after the age of 10). They performed semantic judgments on L1 and L2 literal, idiomatic and metaphorical action sentences after viewing a video of a hand performing an action that was related or unrelated to the verb used in the sentence. Results showed that responses to literal and metaphorical L1 sentences were faster when the action depicted was related to the verb used rather than when the action depicted was unrelated to the verb used. No differences were found for the idiomatic condition. In L2 we found that all responses to the three conditions were facilitated when the action depicted was related to the verb used. Moreover, we found that the difference between the unrelated and the related modalities was greater in L2 than in L1 for the literal and the idiomatic condition but not for the metaphorical condition. These findings are consistent with the embodied cognition hypothesis of language comprehension.

Where is the Motivation in Motivated Numeracy?

AbstractIn a series of very influential papers, Dan Kahan argues for “the identity protective cognition thesis”: the claim that politically motivated reasoning is a major factor explaining current levels of polarization over matters of fact, especially in the US. An important part of his case consists of experimental data supporting the claim that ideological polarization is more extreme amongst more numerate individuals. In this paper, we take a close look at how precisely this “numeracy effect” is supposed to come about. Working with Kahan’s own notion of motivated reasoning, we reconstruct the mechanism that according to him produces the effect. Surprisingly, it turns out to involve plenty of motivation to reason, but no motivated reasoning. This undermines the support he takes the numeracy effect to provide for the identity protective cognition hypothesis.

The effects of task complexity and task sequencing on L2 performance: a systematic review

ABSTRACT This systematic review aims to explore how task complexity and task sequencing affect the complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) of second language performance. Through an analysis of studies conducted between 2012 and 2021, this review investigates the characteristics of the studies, operationalisation of task complexity, measurements of CAF, and the effects of task complexity and task sequencing on CAF. The results suggest a shift in research focus from task complexity to task sequencing. Most prior studies examined Robinson’s hypotheses among English adult learners engaged in writing tasks, mainly utilising elements, reasoning demands, and content support to manipulate task complexity. In addition, they employed a diverse range of methods to measure CAF. The findings partially support the Cognition Hypothesis and the SSARC (stabilise, simplify, automatise, reconstruct, and complexify) model. Previous findings provide robust evidence that complex tasks, controlled via elements and reasoning demands, enhance language complexity. Furthermore, sequencing tasks from simple to complex has been shown to overall improve CAF. Implications for future research are discussed.

Social cognition in children with neurofibromatosis type 1

ABSTRACT Introduction Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is a genetic pathology that can lead to impaired social functioning that has a negative impact on patients’ quality of life. To date, although the hypothesis of impaired social cognition has been proposed as a potential explanation for these difficulties, very few studies have focused on theory of mind in children with NF1. Furthermore, other complex sociocognitive abilities have never been investigated. The aim of the present study was to assess theory of mind, moral reasoning, and social information processing in children with NF1 compared with a control group. Method We administered the Paediatric Evaluation of Emotions, Relationships and Socialization® to 38 children with NF1 aged between 8 years and 16 years 11 months (mean = 11.4, SD = 2.3) and 43 control children with comparable sociodemographic characteristics. Results Patients performed significantly worse than controls on moral reasoning and social information processing tests, but there was no significant difference on theory of mind. Conclusions These results seem to confirm the presence of social cognition difficulties in NF1 that could explain, at least in part, their social difficulties, although not all dimensions are concerned. The differences between the processes we assessed are discussed in relation to the methodologies used to measure them, and raises questions about the complementarity of traditional tools and more ecological assessments.

Temporal Asymmetry of Pleasant and Unpleasant Feelings Among Chinese Adolescents

Previous studies have shown that anticipation induces more emotions than retrospection, known as temporal emotion asymmetry. However, the majority of previous studies have been confined to Western contexts. Eastern populations tend to emphasize the past more than their Western counterparts and may exhibit distinct forms of temporal emotion asymmetry. Therefore, we conducted an investigation involving Chinese adolescents. Our research encompassed two experiments, investigating Chinese adolescents’ temporal emotion asymmetry from a self-perspective (Experiment 1; N = 124) and an other-perspective (Experiment 2; N = 162). Participants were prompted to retrospect and anticipate events that elicited pleasant or unpleasant feelings. The results revealed that, whether from a self-perspective or an other-perspective, retrospection of past positive events elicited greater pleasure than the anticipation of future positive events. However, concerning adverse events, under a self-perspective, anticipation induced more displeasure than retrospection (Experiment 1); under an other-perspective, retrospection induced more displeasure than anticipation (Experiment 2). Our findings provide some support for the construal level theory, fading affect bias, and mobilization-minimization hypothesis of event cognition. Based on these results, retrospection seems to be a potential means for regulating the emotions of Chinese adolescents.

The Neurocognitive Bases of Meaningful Intransitive Gestures: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Neuropsychological Studies.

Researchers and clinicians have long used meaningful intransitive (i.e., not tool-related; MFI) gestures to assess apraxia-a complex and frequent motor-cognitive disorder. Nevertheless, the neurocognitive bases of these gestures remain incompletely understood. Models of apraxia have assumed that meaningful intransitive gestures depend on either long-term memory (i.e., semantic memory and action lexicons) stored in the left hemisphere, or social cognition and the right hemisphere. This meta-analysis of 42 studies reports the performance of 2659 patients with either left or right hemisphere damage in tests of meaningful intransitive gestures, as compared to other gestures (i.e., MFT or meaningful transitive and MLI or meaningless intransitive) and cognitive tests. The key findings are as follows: (1) deficits of meaningful intransitive gestures are more frequent and severe after left than right hemisphere lesions, but they have been reported in both groups; (2) we found a transitivity effect in patients with lesions of the left hemisphere (i.e., meaningful transitive gestures more difficult than meaningful intransitive gestures) but a "reverse" transitivity effect in patients with lesions of the right hemisphere (i.e., meaningful transitive gestures easier than meaningful intransitive gestures); (3) there is a strong association between meaningful intransitive and transitive (but not meaningless) gestures; (4) isolated deficits of meaningful intransitive gestures are more frequent in cases with right than left hemisphere lesions; (5) these deficits may occur in the absence of language and semantic memory impairments; (6) meaningful intransitive gesture performance seems to vary according to the emotional content of gestures (i.e., body-centered gestures and emotional valence-intensity). These findings are partially consistent with the social cognition hypothesis. Methodological recommendations are given for future studies.

Theoretical-Methodological Foundations for the Global Integration Method (Método de Integração Global-MIG) in the Treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Currently, there is no intervention model for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) that addresses all levels and factors of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF, WHO). The most researched programs focus on naturalistic, developmental and behavioral approaches to socio-communication. Less attention has been paid to motor and environmental reactivity aspects (behavior/interest restriction and sensory reactivity). The evidence rationale for the Global Integration Method (MIG, "Método de Integração Global"), a model addressing sensorimotor reactivity in addition to socio-communication, is presented. MIG is an integrative, interdisciplinary, family-oriented intervention and naturalistic program that addresses all levels and moderating factors of ASD's impact. MIG's theoretical rationale is based on the predictive coding impairment and embodied cognition hypotheses. MIG incorporates both bottom-up (flexible therapeutic suit, social-motor synchronization) and top-down (schematic social information processing, narratives, imagery) strategies to promote the building and use of accurate, flexible and context-sensitive internal predictive models. MIG is based on the premises that predictive coding improves both socio-communication and environmental reactivity, and that the postural stabilization provided by the flexible therapeutic suit frees information processing resources for socio-cognitive learning. MIG builds on interdisciplinary, professionally and parentally mediated work based on behavioral principles of intensive training in a situated environment.

One size fits all? The role of task complexity in L2 production via the audio chat

The pervasive use of information and computer technology in second or foreign language learning has led researchers to explore the ideal tasks for technological environments to facilitate second language (L2) learning. This study intended to contribute new knowledge to this area by examining the effects of the task complexity manipulated along the variable +-few elements in Robinson’s Cognition Hypothesis on L2 production of 42 lower intermediate Chinese EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners who completed two interactive tasks (simple versus complex) in dyads via audio chat of the video-conferencing platform WeMeet in a laboratory setting. Participants were also instructed to measure the difficulty of the tasks by responding to a self-rating questionnaire immediately after they completed each task. Their L2 output in the two tasks were recorded, transcribed and coded in three dimensions namely, syntactic complexity, lexical complexity and accuracy. SPSS 26 was used for statistical analyses. The results revealed that increasing task complexity induced significantly more lexically complex language. However, it did not result in significant changes in terms of syntactic complexity or accuracy of learners’ L2 output via audio chat. These results contradicted the predictions of the Cognition Hypothesis, suggesting the inapplicability of Cognition Hypothesis in audio chat.

The Smart Society Between Semantic Indefiniteness and Efficientistic Reductionism

The article aims at the construction of an annotated bibliography on the smart society. the impression, and therein lies the cognitive hypothesis, is that the bibliography on the subject is technical and sectoral. the consequences of this technicality and the semantic difficulty that smartness brings, seen to result in a strong impoverishment of the social.

Is it a vicious circle and for whom? The reciprocal association between rumination and somatic symptoms and moderation by stress: A daily diary study among Chinese college students.

College students who experienced somatic symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic may engage in rumination, but their bidirectional nature remains underexplored. Symptom perception theory suggests a reciprocal relationship between rumination and somatic symptoms, and the multiple-stressor perspective and the perseverative cognition hypothesis assume that the reciprocal association might be exacerbated by high stress. In this study, we examined temporal associations between rumination and somatic symptoms and variations by patterns of stress related to COVID-19 and daily hassles. A total of 582 Chinese college students provided daily reports on rumination, somatic symptoms, COVID-related stress, and daily hassles for seven consecutive days in November 2020. A cross-lagged panel model showed a positive reciprocal association between rumination and somatic symptoms. Greater rumination predicted more next-day somatic symptoms, and more somatic symptoms increased next-day rumination. Dual trajectory analysis identified four stress patterns of COVID-related stress and daily hassles (i.e. low-low, low-high, high-low, and high-high), and multi-group analysis found the reciprocal association only presented in the high-high group. Our findings indicate a vicious circle between rumination and somatic symptoms that is dependent on heterogeneous stress patterns. Attention should be paid to the high-risk group with both high levels of COVID-related stress and daily hassles.

The effects of task complexity and language aptitude on EFL learners’ writing performance

The present study investigated the effects of task complexity and language aptitude on upper-intermediate EFL learners’ argumentative writing performance in terms of syntactic complexity, lexical complexity, accuracy and fluency. The findings of this study demonstrated that increasing task complexity manipulated by the number of elements and the degree of reasoning along the resource-directing dimension leads to enhancement of syntactic complexity and lexical diversity, and there are low correlations between language aptitude (mainly number learning and spelling clues) and writing performance. What’s more, task complexity and language aptitude (and its components) are predictors for writing performance in terms of intraclausal level of syntactic complexity, lexical diversity and fluency. These findings lend partial support to the Cognition hypothesis and Aptitude Complexes Hypothesis in L2 writing. Theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical implications of the study for task design and implementation as well as for task-based assessment in language education programs are discussed.

Effects of cognitive task complexity and online planning on second language learners' argumentative writing.

Based on Kellogg's writing model, Skehan's Limited Attentional Capacity Model (LACM), and Robinson's Cognition Hypothesis, our study investigated the effects of cognitive task complexity on syntactic complexity, lexical complexity, accuracy, fluency, and functional adequacy in Chinese L2 students' argumentative writing, when students were under an online planning condition. Sixty-eight participants from a Chinese university were recruited to complete two writing tasks with task complexity varied in terms of [+ argument elements]. The findings showed that increasing task complexity led to decreased subordination in terms of clauses per T-unit and dependent clauses per clause, increased phrasal elaboration in terms of coordinate phrases per clause, and no changes in mean length of T-unit, T-units per sentence, mean length of clause, and complex nominals per clause. Neither significant differences in accuracy nor fluency were found as a function of increasing task complexity. Detrimental effects on functional adequacy in content, organization, and overall scores were identified with the increases in task complexity. The trade-offs between syntactic and lexical complexity and between syntactic complexity and functional adequacy support the basic principle of Skehan's LACM that human's information processing capacity is limited and Kellogg's claim that learners have a limited central executive capacity in writing. Implications of the results of this research are discussed.