Cognitive Evaluation Theory Research Articles

An Invisible Frontier? Intrinsic-Extrinsic Motivations and Knowledge Sharing in Firms

This paper examines the motivational foundations, based on intrinsic and/or extrinsic factors, of knowledge creation, sharing and transferring process within manufacturing firms in an innovation perspective. First, using French data set, we study the interrelationships between knowledge management and motivation management practices, and their impact on knowledge sharing (defined as conducting a shared pool of knowledge). We find differences between firms' characteristics regarding size, technological sectors, group membership and innovation performance. Second, organizational diversity of the firms is showed. We identify three motivation management systems characterized respectively: (i) traditional firms i.e. traditional in their work organization; (ii) firms using motivation personel practices and (iii) learning firms using, added to motivation, knowledge management practices. Firms using motivation practices are linked to agency and incentives theories based on extrinsic factors. Learning firms use both interrelated intrinsic and extrinsic motivations as suggested by self-determination theory (SDT) and also by cognitive evaluation theory (CET) in which feelings of competence and autonomy are important for intrinsic motivation. Third, empirical evidence allows to conclude that motivation management systems have significant and positive impact on knowledge sharing, while marginal changes in individual practices have little effect. This logic of interrelationships accounts for synergies existing between these practices. The result supports the notion that motivation practices must be systematically associated with both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation practices and specific organization in order to reach the maximum performance.

An Evaluation of Barrier Efficacy and Cognitive Evaluation Theory as Predictors of Exercise Attendance

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the barrier efficacy and cognitive evaluation theory with regard to predicting exercise attendance. Participants consisted of 189 undergraduates attending not‐for‐credit fitness classes at a regional comprehensive university in the Midwest. A revised 17‐item version of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory was used to assess exercise enjoyment and the three components of self‐determination theory (competence, autonomy, and relatedness). A modified version of the Self‐Efficacy Scale was used to assess self‐efficacy. Attendance was significantly correlated with competency and self‐efficacy. Regression results revealed that class, relatedness, and competence accounted for a significant amount of variance in attendance. Future research should examine the effects of competence‐enhancing strategies on exercise adherence.

Environmental Morale and Motivation

This chapter discusses the role of environmental morale and environmental motivation in individual behavior from the point of view of economics and psychology. It deals with the fundamental public good problem, and presents empirical (laboratory and field) evidence on how the cooperation problem can be overcome. Four different theoretical approaches are distinguished according to how individuals' underlying environmental motivation is modeled. Specifically, we look at the interaction between environmental policy and environmental morale through the lens of cognitive evaluation theory (also known as crowding theory).

Do multidimensional intrinsic and extrinsic motivation profiles discriminate between athlete scholarship status and gender?

The purpose of this investigation was to examine whether levels of multidimensional intrinsic, multidimensional extrinsic motivation and amotivation could accurately discriminate scholarship status and gender in United States collegiate athletes. Participants comprised 82 male (M age = 19.89, SD=1.39) and 90 female (M age = 20.26, SD=1.63) collegiate athletes. Each participant completed a demographic questionnaire and the Sports Motivation Scale (Pelletier, L.G., Fortier, M.S., Vallerand, R.J., Tuson, K. M., Brière, N.M., & Blais, M.R. (1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The Sports Motivation Scale. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 35–53). Two-group discriminant analysis revealed a significant canonical function correctly classifying 72.8% of the cases into either the scholarship or non-scholarship group. The least self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation were the strongest contributors to this discrimination. With respect to gender, a significant discriminant function existed, again with the least self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation representing the strongest discriminating variables. The results provide converging evidence that rewards such as scholarships can undermine intrinsic motivation. Further, as well as being consistent with theoretical predictions embedded in cognitive evaluation theory, the results of this study suggest that in addition to undermining intrinsic motivation, scholarships could foster non-self-determined forms of motivation.

Self‐determination theory and work motivation

AbstractCognitive evaluation theory, which explains the effects of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation, received some initial attention in the organizational literature. However, the simple dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation made the theory difficult to apply to work settings. Differentiating extrinsic motivation into types that differ in their degree of autonomy led to self‐determination theory, which has received widespread attention in the education, health care, and sport domains. This article describes self‐determination theory as a theory of work motivation and shows its relevance to theories of organizational behavior. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Motivational Effects of the Classroom Environment in Facilitating Self-Regulated Learning

Students can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, lack initiative and responsibility for their learning. Self-regulated learning involves learning strategies and mental processes that learners deliberately engage to help themselves learn and perform better academically. The results of this study provide empirical support for the theoretical relationships among cognitive evaluation theory, achievement goal theory, and self-regulated learning strategies in the context of the classroom. Superficial learning strategies were linked to extrinsic motivation, while intrinsic motivation determined deep cognitive and metacognitive strategy usage. Perceived autonomy, perceived competence, and task mastery orientation mediated the classroom environment’s effect on intrinsic motivation. These findings suggest that active applicationoriented experience delivered by enthusiastic faculty, who provide high interaction, supportive feedback, and clear goals that emphasize learning over grades, will increase intrinsic motivation and the use of self-regulated learning strategies. Teaching guidelines and pedagogical examples for enhancing intrinsic motivation are provided.

Why did you do that? An economic examination of the effect of extrinsic compensation on intrinsic motivation and performance

According to empirical evidence, extrinsic incentives often crowd out intrinsic motivation, thus reducing the effort of workers. This article presents a principal–agent model utilizing a Benthamite interpretation of utility as overall satisfaction and incorporating insights from cognitive evaluation theory to explain motivation crowding out. In this context, motivation crowding out occurs when explicit rewards are perceived as controlling, which results in individuals having greater satisfaction by not being intrinsically motivated. The model shows that rewards could be perceived as controlling under two conditions. The first is when the object of an agent’s intrinsic motivation is also the source of the agent’s extrinsic compensation. The second is when the incentives offered to the agent are too large.

골퍼의 성취동기와 목표성향의 관계

The study was designed to explore the relationship of the Goal Perspective Theory(Nicholls,1989), and the Cognitive Evaluation Theory(Deci ＆ Ryan, 1985) utilizing structural equation modeling analyses. The Sport Motivation Scale(SMS)(Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, & Briere, 1995), and the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire(TEOSQ)(Duda & Nicholls, 1992) were administered to 423 male amateur golfers. The seven-factor structure of SMS and the two-factor structure of TEOSQ were confirmed. In the more-Self-Determined Model positive significant(p.05) relationships were found between goal orientation and STIM(Intrinsic Motivation to experience Stimulation), ACC(Intrinsic Motivation to Accomplish Things), KNOW(Intrinsic Motivation to Know), IDREG (Identified Regulation), and INTREG(Introjected Regulation) of SMS. In the Less-Self-Determined Model positive significant(.05) relationship was found between ego orientation and XREG(External Regulation) of SMS. But no relationship was found between ego orientation and AMOT(Amotivation).

Why Did You Do That? An Economic Examination of the Effect of Extrinsic Compensation on Intrinsic Motivation and Performance

According to empirical evidence, extrinsic incentives often crowd out intrinsic motivation, thus reducing the effort choices of workers. This article presents a principal-agent model that incorporates insights from cognitive evaluation theory in order to show how the introduction of explicit incentives causes a discontinuous reduction in worker effort and why motivation crowding out occurs. Motivation crowding out is shown to be a rational response of the agent to the introduction of incentives when rewards are perceived as controlling, since controlled behavior does not provide intrinsic satisfaction. Extrinsic rewards could be perceived as controlling under two conditions. The first is when the object of an agent's intrinsic motivation is also the source of the agent's extrinsic compensation. The second is when the incentives offered to the agent are too large.

The coach–athlete relationship: a motivational model

The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach–athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes' motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a motivational sequence is proposed where coaches' personal orientation towards coaching, the context within which they operate, and their perceptions of their athletes' behaviour and motivation influence coaches' behaviours. Also, coaches' behaviours in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of structure and involvement have a beneficial impact on athletes' needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, which, in turn, nurture athletes' intrinsic motivation and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation. Here, we first review coaches' autonomy-supportive behaviours. We then describe the psychological processes through which coaching behaviours have a positive influence on athletes' intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Finally, we identify social and personality processes that determine coaching behaviours.

Intrinsic and extrinsic work orientations as moderators of the effect of annual income on subjective well-being: a longitudinal study.

Income is only weakly associated with both subjective well-being (SWB) and job satisfaction in the United States, a surprising finding in light of the importance placed on financial status in capitalistic societies. To explore this further, the authors examined intrinsic and extrinsic work orientations as potential moderators of the effects of financial compensation on SWB and job satisfaction. Master's of business administration students (N = 124) completed measures of work orientation and, 4 to 9 years later, reported their current salary, SWB, and job satisfaction. As predicted, individuals high in extrinsic orientation experienced higher SWB and job satisfaction to the degree that they earned more money, whereas those high in intrinsic orientation were lower on SWB at higher income levels. These findings are discussed in terms of the Values as Moderators Perspective of SWB and Cognitive Evaluation Theory.

Harnessing motivational forces in the promotion of physical activity: the Community Health Advice by Telephone (CHAT) project

Physical inactivity among middle- and older-aged adults is pervasive, and is linked with numerous chronic conditions that diminish health and functioning. Counselor-directed physical activity programs may enhance extrinsic motivation (reflected in social influence theories, such as self-presentation theory) and, in turn, physical activity adherence, while the counselor is in charge of program delivery. However, external influences can undermine intrinsic motivation, making it more difficult to maintain physical activity once counselor-initiated contact ends. In contrast, programs that diminish the socially evaluative and controlling aspects of the counseling interchange may promote intrinsic motivation (described in cognitive evaluation theory), and, thus, physical activity maintenance, even when counselor-initiated contact ceases. The objective of the Community Health Advice by Telephone (CHAT) project is to compare these two theories by conducting a randomized controlled trial evaluating the effects of a telephone-administered counseling program delivered by a person (social influence enhancement) or computer (cognitive evaluation enhancement) on physical activity adoption and maintenance over 18 months. Healthy, sedentary adults (n = 225) aged 55 years and older are randomized to one of these programs or to a control arm. This study will contribute to advancing motivational theory as well as provide information on the sustained effectiveness of interventions with substantial public health applicability.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and intention to breast-feed.

To examine the feasibility of using the cognitive evaluation theory to examine pregnant women's intention to breast-feed. A questionnaire designed to measure intrinsic and extrinsic motivation was administered to 228 pregnant women. Results provide evidence for reliability and validity of the revised instrument in this population. A factor analysis suggests the instrument measures 2 types of intrinsic motivation, one type of extrinsic motivation, and motivation related to the baby. The instrument distinguished differences in motivation between women who intend to breast-feed and those who intend to formula feed. This study helps elucidate motivational factors involved in infant-feeding decisions.

Agency theory, performance evaluation, and the hypothetical construct of intrinsic motivation

Cognitive evaluation theory and its hypothetical construct of intrinsic motivation are enjoying increasing popularity in the fields of business administration and economics. Consequently, intensifying skepticism towards performance incentives and agency theory is postulated. According to cognitive evaluation theory, it is argued that performance pay may undermine an agent's intrinsic motivation. In contradiction to agency theory, the principal might be worse off when providing an incentive contract to the agent than without doing so. Since the contention is substantiated by empirical evidence, it seems worrying enough for further investigation. Restricting attention to performance pay in business corporations, the scope of this article is to evaluate whether agency theory faces an urgent need to incorporate the construct of intrinsic motivation and its ‘hidden costs of reward' as postulated by supporters of the concept. The subsequent analysis reveals good and bad news for agency theory. The bad news is that hidden costs of reward do indeed exist. The good news is that the empirical evidence on undermining effects cannot be interpreted as being contradictory to agency theory. In particular, the antecedents for such effects not only seldomly prevail in business corporations, they are also easily avoidable.

The impact of performance-contingent rewards on perceived autonomy and competence.

Two studies examined the impact of performance-contingent rewards on perceived autonomy, competence, and intrinsic motivation. Autonomy was measured in terms of both decisional and affective reports. The first study revealed an undermining effect of performance-contingent rewards on affective reports of autonomy among university students, and an increase in reports of competence. Decisional autonomy judgements were unaffected by rewards. The second study replicated this pattern of findings among elementary school children. These results help resolve Cognitive Evaluation Theory’s (E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan, 1985; R. M. Ryan, V. Mims, & R. Koestner, 1983) and Eisenberger, Rhoades, et al.’s (R. Eisenberger, L. Rhoades, & J. Cameron, 1999) divergent positions on the impact of performance-contingent rewards on autonomy. The studies also included measures of intrinsic motivation.

Does Public Policy Crowd Out Private Contributions to Public Goods?

It is sometimes claimed that individuals' contributions to public goods are not motivated by economic costs and benefits alone, but that people also have a moral or norm-based motivation. A number of studies indicate that such moral or norm-based motivation might be crowded out, or crowded in, by public policy. This paper discusses some models that can yield insight into the interplay between economic and moral or norm-based motivation for voluntary contributions to public goods, and compares their policy implications. We distinguish between four types of models: Altruism models, social norm models, models of commitment and the cognitive evaluation theory.

Pre- to Post-Season Changes in the Intrinsic Motivation of First Year College Athletes: Relationships with Coaching Behavior and Scholarship Status

This study examined whether the intrinsic motivation levels of first-year college athletes changed from pre- to post-season as a function of their scholarship status or their perceptions of their coaches' behavior. Division I college athletes ( N = 72) completed questionnaires assessing their intrinsic motivation at the beginning and end of their first year of participation. They also reported their scholarship status and their perceptions of their coaches' behaviors over the season. Contrary to predictions, results revealed that neither scholarship status nor time affected the athletes' level of intrinsic motivation. Strong support for the relationship between athletes' perceptions of their coaches' behavior and changes in athletes' level of intrinsic motivation over the season, however, emerged. Increases in athletes' level of intrinsic motivation were associated with athletes' perceptions that their coaches exhibited high frequencies of training and instruction behavior, and low frequencies of autocratic behavior and social support. Results are discussed in relation to cognitive evaluation theory and previous research on intrinsic motivation.

Autonomy Support, Intrinsic Motivation, and Perceived Competence: Conceptual and Empirical Linkages

The purpose of this study was to test three models with regard to the linkages among autonomy support, intrinsic motivation, and perceived competence. The first model is based on Cognitive Evaluation Theory and postulates that teachers’ autonomy support influences changes in intrinsic motivation via changes in perceived academic competence. However, the second and the third model are based on the Diathesis Stress Model of Achievement Processes and posit, respectively, that intrinsic motivation could play a mediating and a moderating role in the relation between teachers’ autonomy support and changes in perceived competence. A total of 215 fifth-grade children participated in a longitudinal study over a 1-year period. Results from regression analyses provided some support for the first model but stronger support for the second and third model.

Negative Effects of Reward on Intrinsic Motivation—A Limited Phenomenon: Comment on Deci, Koestner, and Ryan (2001)

A major concern in educational settings is that the use of rewards and incentives may destroy students’ intrinsic motivation to perform activities. In collaboration with other researchers, the author conducted a meta-analysis of the literature that showed that negative effects of reward were limited and easily avoidable (Cameron & Pierce, 1994; Eisenberger & Cameron, 1996 ). Deci, Koestner, and Ryan (2001) suggest that our work was seriously flawed; they present a summary of their meta-analysis on the topic (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999a) and claim that rewards do substantially undermine intrinsic interest. In this comment, it is argued that there is no inherent negative property of reward. By organizing studies according to cognitive evaluation theory, Deci et al. (1999a) collapsed across distinct reward procedures and were able to obtain pervasive negative effects. When studies are organized according to the actual procedures used, however, negative effects are limited to a specific set of circumstances.

Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again

The finding that extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation has been highly controversial since it first appeared ( Deci, 1971 ). A meta-analysis published in this journal (Cameron & Pierce, 1994) concluded that the undermining effect was minimal and largely inconsequential for educational policy. However, a more recent meta-analysis (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999 ) showed that the Cameron and Pierce meta-analysis was seriously flawed and that its conclusions were incorrect. This article briefly reviews the results of the more recent meta-analysis, which showed that tangible rewards do indeed have a substantial undermining effect. The meta-analysis provided strong support for cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1980), which Cameron and Pierce had advocated abandoning. The results are briefly discussed in terms of their relevance for educational practice.