Cognitive Evaluation Theory Research Articles

Deci and Ryan's cognitive evaluation theory of intrinsic motivation: A set of common sense theorems

Cognitive evaluation theory as put forward by Deci and Ryan (1985) is examined. The theory, which deals with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, has inspired considerable amount of empirical research in the last two decades. However, contrary to the mainstream view and that of its authors, it is argued here that the theory consists of necessary truths of common sense (folk) psychology, rather than contingent and empirically testable hypotheses. As such the theory spells out what must necessarily be the case in human motivation and the empirical evidence amassed to test its validity is irrelevant. Such testing should be abandoned if its purpose is to appraise the truth value of the theory's propositions. To empirically test necessary true propositions is not only redundant in such cases, but also a waste of time and resources.

Surveillant intentions and intrinsic motivation.

Alternative predictions about the influence of surveillance on intrinsic motivation were derived from cognitive evaluation and objective self-awareness theories. Adult Ss in Experiment 1 were assigned to surveillance conditions that implicated either controlling or noncontrolling surveillant intentions or to no-surveillance conditions. A behavioral measure revealed greater intrinsic motivation in the noncontrolling intention and no-surveillance conditions than in the controlling intention conditions (ps<.05). Experiment 2 examined why the lowest level of intrinsic motivation in Experiment 1 occurred when the surveillant did not specify a reason for watching Ss

Understanding reactions to feedback by integrating ideas from symbolic interactionism and cognitive evaluation theory.

The first 2 experiments examined how interpersonal and objective feedback influenced targets' perceptions of performance, ability, and effort. Interpersonal feedback was more influential when objective feedback was intermediate than when it was high or low. Path analyses indicated that reflected appraisals entirely mediated influences of interpersonal feedback on self-perceptions and partially mediated influences of objective feedback on self-perceptions.

Understanding reactions to feedback by integrating ideas from symbolic interactionism and cognitive evaluation theory.

Understanding reactions to feedback by integrating ideas from symbolic interactionism and cognitive evaluation theory.

The Fragmentation of Reason: Preface to a Pragmatic Theory of Cognitive Evaluation.

From Descartes to Popper, philosophers have criticized and tried to improve the strategies of reasoning invoked in science and in everyday life. In recent years leading cognitive psychologists have painted a detailed, controversial, and highly critical portrait of common sense reasoning. Stephen Stich begins with a spirited defense of this work and a critique of those writers who argue that widespread irrationality is a biological or conceptual impossibility.Stich then explores the nature of rationality and irrationality: What is it that distinguishes good reasoning from bad? He rejects the most widely accepted approaches to this question approaches which unpack rationality by appeal to truth, to reflective equilibrium or conceptual analysis. The alternative he defends grows out of the pragmatic tradition in which reasoning is viewed as a cognitive tool. Stich's version of pragmatism leads to a radical epistemic relativism and he argues that the widespread abhorrence of relativism is ill founded.Stephen Stich is Professor of Philosophy at Rutgers University and author of From Folk Psychology to Cognitive Science.

Eight myths on motivating social services workers: theory-based perspectives.

A combination of factors has made formal motivational and reward systems rare in human service organizations generally and virtually non-existent in social service agencies. The author reviews eight of these myths by reference to eight motivational theories which refute them: need theory, expectancy theory, feedback theory, equity theory, reinforcement theory, cognitive evaluation theory, goal setting theory, and social influence theory. Although most of these theories have been developed and applied in the private sector, relevant research has also been conducted in social service agencies. The author concludes with a summary of guidelines suggested by the eight theories for motivating human service workers.

Youth Fitness Testing: The Effect of Percentile-Based Evaluative Feedback on Intrinsic Motivation

This study was a test of Deci and Ryan's (1985) cognitive evaluation theory in a fitness testing situation. More specifically, it was a test of Proposition 2 of that theory, which posits that external events that increase or decrease perceived competence will increase or decrease intrinsic motivation. Seventh and eighth grade schoolchildren (N = 105) volunteered for an experiment that was ostensibly to collect data on a new youth fitness test (the Illinois Agility Run). After two untimed practice runs, a specially adapted version of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) was administered as a pretest of intrinsic motivation. Two weeks later when subjects ran again, they were apparently electronically timed. In reality, the subjects were given bogus feedback. Subjects in a positive feedback condition were told their scores were above the 80th percentile, while those in a negative feedback condition were told their scores were below the 20th percentile. Those in a control condition received no feedback. The IMI was again administered to the subjects after their runs. Multivariate and subsequent univariate tests were significant for all four subscale dependent variables (perceived interest-enjoyment, competence, effort, and pressure-tension). Positive feedback enhanced all aspects of intrinsic motivation, whereas negative feedback decreased them. In a further test of cognitive evaluation theory, path analysis results supported the prediction that perceived competence would mediate changes in the other IMI subscales. Taken together, these results clearly support cognitive evaluation theory and also may have important implications regarding motivation for those who administer youth fitness tests.

Combined Effects of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards on Motivation

Contrasting predictions from expectancy valence and cognitive evaluation theories were tested in a 2 × 2 factorial design in which intrinsic and extrinsic rewards were independently manipulated. Based on critiques of earlier research, several relevant factors were considered in the present design: type of extrinsic reward, measure of intrinsic motivation, and use of moderator variables, such as higher order need strength. 94 college students worked on either an interesting or boring task for a low or high extrinsic reward. The primary measure of intrinsic motivation was subjects' return rate to a second experimental session. Results support the expectancy valence hypothesis that intrinsic and contingent extrinsic rewards have an additive effect on motivation. Both types of rewards show significant main effects. There were no significant moderator effects. Differences between this study and research supporting cognitive evaluation theory are discussed.

The fragmentation of reason: preface to a pragmatic theory of cognitive evaluation

The fragmentation of reason: preface to a pragmatic theory of cognitive evaluation

RE-EVALUATION OR REINFORCEMENT?: A NEW LOOK AT COGNITIVE EVALUATION THEORY

Cognitive Evaluation Theory was developed to explain the detrimental effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation, a phenomenon contrary to Reinforcement Theory prediction. However, it was suggested that if a person's intrinsic or extrinsic motivational orientation was taken into account, Reinforcement Theory might be able to explain this phenomenon. A 2 (extrinsic x intrinsic motivational orientation) by 2 (competence feedback x controlling feedback) was employed to examine the effect of motivational orientation on intrinsic motivation. Use of the Jonckheere Test of Order suggested that the detrimental effect of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation might be explained within the reinforcement paradigm.

内発的動機づけに及ぼす評価主体と評価基準の効果

The present study was designed to examine the effects of differences in the evaluation-subject and the evaluation-standard on intrinsic motivation. The subjects were 64 students. A 2×2 factorial design was used. Two conditions of the evaluation-subject (evaluation by the experimenter and self-evaluation) were crossed with two conditions of the evaluation-standard (norm-referenced and self-referenced). The dependent variables consisted of several measures of intrinsic motivation and anxiety obtained from behavioral indicators and questionnaires. One of the main results revealed that evaluation by the experimenter decreased intrinsic motivation but increased anxiety relative to self-evaluation. Another result also showed that norm-referenced evaluation decreased intrinsic motivation relative to self-referenced evaluation in one of the given behavioral indicators. But there were no significant differences between two conditions of the evaluation-standard on any other measures of intrinsic motivation. These results were discussed mainly in terms of cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

Bridging the research traditions of task/ego involvement and intrinsic/extrinsic motivation: Comment on Butler (1987).

In an experiment on the effects of different feedback conditions on motivationally relevant variables, Butler (1987) tested the hypothesis that the effects of feedback on intrinsic motivation would depend on whether that feedback promotes a task-involving or ego-involving orientation. She interpreted the findings as they relate to Nicholls's theory of task/ego involvement and our cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Although the data were very interesting, Butler failed to review a series of highly relevant studies, she misportrayed cognitive evaluation theory, and she drew conclusions that were not necessarily warranted given her experimental manipulations and data. This article provides a commentary on that research and presents a discussion of the relation between the two theories that Butler claimed to have tested. In a recent article, Butler (1987) attempted to the traditions of research on task/ego involvement and intrinsic/ extrinsic motivation and to provide an apparent between two current theories relevant to student motivation and performance, namely, Nicholls's (1979, 1984b) theory of ego versus task involvement and Deci and Ryan's (1980, 1985) cognitive evaluation theory. Unfortunately, the Butler article did not achieve either objective, being neither a new bridge nor an appropriate critical test. First, although unacknowledged in her article, the two areas of task/ego involvement and intrinsic/extrinsic motivation have been bridged for seven years by a series of empirical investigations and theoretical discussions. Second, her presentation has failed to provide a critical test of the theories, in part because she misrepresented cognitive evaluation theory. And third, her conclusions are subject to alternative interpretations given her specific experimental manipulations and results. In this comment, we will elaborate those three points and discuss the comparison of Nicholls's theory and ours.

THE COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF VERBAL AND TOKEN REWARDS ON CHILDREN'S INTRINSIC MOTIVATION USING THE METHOD OF QUESTIONNAIRE

This study was conducted to investigate the Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) in 66 Japanese sixth-grade children using the method of questionnaire on intrinsic motivation. The CET was proposed by Deci (1975) and it had to do with the effects of extrinsic rewards upon intrinsic motivation. In this study the subjects were randomly divided into 3 groups, i. e., verbal reward group, token reward group, and control group. The verbal reward group was praised every time they solved the puzzles. The token reward group was given a token card every time they solved the puzzles. The control group was only to solve them. After each treatment, they were asked 6 questions and they answered them on 5-point scale. Most of the results did not support the CET. Especially, the prediction on feeling of competence was not supported. Several problems were discussed for developing studies on the CET.

Sex and Age Differences in Response to Informational and Controlling Feedback

This study examined two issues ensuing from cognitive evaluation theory (Deci, 1975; Deci &amp; Ryan, 1980, 1985), through the manipulation of positive feedback to third, fifth, and eighth grade children. Analysis of self-reported interest revealed that, as predicted, controlling feedback significantly lowered interest relative to informational -and no-feedback groups. The hypothesis that informational feedback would raise interest levels relative to the no-feedback group was not supported, perhaps due to a ceiling effect. These results replicate and extend previous findings with adults to children in a classroom context. A mixed-feedback condition, containing components of both information and control, yielded sex differences. As predicted, in the mixed condition, females reported interest levels significantly lower than those reported by males in that condition and by females in the informational -and no-feedback conditions. Although interest declined across grade level, the decline was greatest in the mixed condition, between fifth and eighth grades.

COGNITIVE EVALUATION THEORY: A META-ANALYTIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Rewards have been shown to impair performance of a reinforced behavior. The work surrounding these detrimental effects of rewards has not been met with unanimous support. Does this phenomenon described in Deci's Cognitive Evaluation Theory concerning the detrimental effects of reward exist? Is Deci's Cognitive Evaluation Theory adequate to explain this phenomenon? A meta-analysis was employed to determine the existence of the detrimental effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Results from this analysis showed that within strictly defined parameters the phenomenon defined by Deci exists. Implications from this analysis exemplify researchers' need for closer supervision of the operationalization of variables based on the theoretical framework.

Script processing and intrinsic motivation: The cognitive sets underlying cognitive labels

Research on cognitive evaluation theory has found that imposed external constraints can reduce the intrinsic motivation associated with an originally interesting task. It has been suggested that external constraints such as rewards affect intrinsic motivation through their impact on perceptions of locus of causality and self-competence. Recently research has shown that the cognitive labels associated with a task (play vs work) also affect intrinsic motivation. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the role of the cognitive sets that may underlie play and work labels and the effect of performance goals on intrinsic motivation. It was hypothesized that play and work scripts as measured by script-related memory measures would predict the degree of intrinsic motivation associated with an activity. In addition, performance goals were manipulated in order to investigate the effect of perceived locus of goal and goal difficulty on intrinsic motivation. In order to examine the above relationships, a 2 (play vs work context) × 3 (self-set vs assigned moderate vs assigned difficult performance goals) factorial design was used with 150 college students serving as subjects. The results were generally supportive of a script processing model. Play script memory items were significant predictors of intrinsic motivation. In addition, goals that were perceived as originating internally and as being difficult were positively related to intrinsic motivation.

Task-involving and ego-involving properties of evaluation: Effects of different feedback conditions on motivational perceptions, interest, and performance.

I designed this study to test the hypothesis that the impact of information about performance on subsequent intrinsic motivation depends significantly on the degree to which this information promotes a task-involved or an ego-involved motivational orientation. A total of 200 fifth- and sixth-grade students with high or low school achievement were given interesting divergent thinking tasks in each of three sessions. Individual comments, numerical grades, standardized praise, or no feedback were received after Sessions 1 and 2. Results confirmed that at Session 3 (posttest), interest, performance, and attributions of effort, outcome, and the impact of evaluation to taskinvolved causes were highest at both levels of achievement after receipt of comments. Egoinvolved attributions were highest after receipt of grades and praise. These findings support the conceptualization of the feedback conditions as task involving (comments), ego involving (grades and praise), or neither (no feedback). The similar impact of grades and praise would not be predicted by cognitive evaluation theory. I discuss the importance of distinguishing between taskand ego-involved orientations in the study of continuing motivation. In several recent articles, Nicholls (1979, 1983) distinguishes among three main kinds of task motivation, according to the primary goal or focus of behavior characteristic of each. In a conceptualization similar to that suggested by deCharms (1968), Nicholls defines task involvement as a motivational state in which an activity is perceived as inherently satisfying and in which the individual is concerned primarily with assessing and developing individual mastery in relation to task demands or prior performance. Thus, greater effort is expected to yield greater competence. In ego involvement, on the other hand, attention is focused primarily on assessing ability, which is perceived as a stable dimension of individual differences. Because such capacity can only be evaluated against the performance of others, ego involvement should promote a self-worth orientation in which one's main concern is to demonstrate high ability or mask low ability relative to others. Finally, extrinsic motivation is assumed to operate when an activity is undertaken as a means to some other end. Attention is thus focused primarily on attaining the desired goal, rather than on demonstrating either individual mastery or normative ability. Nicholls (1984) has been concerned mainly with exploring the implications of task-involved and ego-involved motivation for immediate achievement behavior, whereas extrinsic motivation has been studied mainly within the context of research on the effects of incentives on subsequent interest (Lepper & Greene, 1978). In the present study, I attempt to bridge these traditions by suggesting that continuing interest

Negative Effects of Competition on Children's Intrinsic Motivation

Abstract This study examined the effects of competition on intrinsic motivation. Subjects (N = 23) were randomly assigned to conditions of competition or intrinsic-mastery orientation. In the competition condition, subjects were instructed to perform an interesting activity with the explicit goal of “beating” other participants. In the intrinsic-mastery orientation condition, subjects were told to do as well as they could while looking for novel ways to perform the activity. Results showed that subjects in the competition condition displayed less subsequent intrinsic motivation than did mastery-oriented subjects. The present findings corroborate predictions based on cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) that competition can have deleterious consequences on intrinsic motivation.

Effects of Zero-Sum Competition on Children's Intrinsic Motivation and Perceived Competence

Abstract This study assessed the effects of competition on intrinsic motivation and perceptions of competence. Using Church's (1968) reward conceptualization of competition, the competency aspect of competition was made salient by offering a Best Performance Award to tournament winners. Subjects were randomly assigned to conditions of winning or losing the competition. Results revealed that subjects not winning the competition perceived themselves as less competent and displayed less intrinsic motivation than subjects winning the competition. These findings corroborate predictions based on Deci and Ryan's (1985) cognitive evaluation theory, which explains the psychological processes underlying changes in intrinsic motivation that occur in competitive situations.

Cognitive evaluation theory: The effects of external rewards on intrinsic motivation of gifted students

Cognitive evaluation theory: The effects of external rewards on intrinsic motivation of gifted students