Cognitive Control Of Behavior Research Articles

Neural substrates of habit.

Active reward pursuit is supported by the balance between the cognitive and habitual control of behavior. The cognitive, goal-directed strategy relies on the prospective evaluation of anticipated consequences, which allows behavior to readily adapt when circumstances change. Repetition of successful actions promotes less cognitively taxing habits, in which behavior is automatically executed without prospective consideration. Disruption in either of these behavioral regulatory systems contributes to the symptoms that underlie many psychiatric disorders. Here, I review recently identified neural substrates, at multiple neural levels, that contribute to habits and outline gaps in knowledge that must be addressed to fully understand the neural mechanisms of behavioral control.

Resting-State Brain Connectivity Predicts Weight Loss and Cognitive Control of Eating Behavior After Vertical Sleeve Gastrectomy.

The effects of sleeve gastrectomy (SG) on functional connectivity (FC)and associations with weight loss and eating-related cognitive control were investigated. In a longitudinal study, 14 SG patients (13 female; 42.1 presurgeryBMI) completed study visits 1 month presurgery and 12 months postsurgery. Patients completed the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging scanning to measureFC. Data were analyzed using a seed-to-voxel approach in the CONN Toolbox to investigate pre-/postsurgery changes (n = 12) and to conduct predictive analysis (n = 14). Seed-to-voxel analysis revealed changes in magnitude (decreases) and directionality (positively correlated to anticorrelated) of FC pre to postsurgery within and between default mode network, salience network, and frontoparietal network nodes [Family-Wise Error (FWE) corrected at P < 0.05]. Baseline FC of the nucleus accumbens (with insula) and hypothalamus (with precentral gyrus) predicted 12-month post-SG % total weight loss (FWE-P < 0.05). Baseline FC of the hippocampus, frontoparietal network, and default mode network nodes predicted improvement in cognitive control of eating behavior 12 monthsafter SG (FWE-P < 0.05). Our findings demonstrate changes in FC magnitude and directionality post versus presurgery within and between resting-state networks and frontal, paralimbic, and visual areas in SG patients. Baseline FC predicted weight loss and changes in cognitive control of food intake behavior at 12 months. These could serve as predictive biomarkers for bariatric surgery.

Cognitive control of complex motor behavior in marmoset monkeys

Marmosets have attracted significant interest in the life sciences. Similarities with human brain anatomy and physiology, such as the granular frontal cortex, as well as the development of transgenic lines and potential for transferring rodent neuroscientific techniques to small primates make them a promising neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric model system. However, whether marmosets can exhibit complex motor tasks in highly controlled experimental designs—one of the prerequisites for investigating higher-order control mechanisms underlying cognitive motor behavior—has not been demonstrated. We show that marmosets can be trained to perform vocal behavior in response to arbitrary visual cues in controlled operant conditioning tasks. Our results emphasize the marmoset as a suitable model to study complex motor behavior and the evolution of cognitive control underlying speech.

Conflict control of emotional and non-emotional conflicts in preadolescent children

Conflict control refers to an individual’s goal-directed cognitive control and self-regulation of behavior. The neurodevelopment related to conflict control is crucial for the development of cognitive and emotional abilities in children. In the current study, preadolescent children and adults completed the Simon and Stroop tasks in emotional and non-emotional contexts with simultaneous electroencephalography recordings. The behavioral findings showed that adults had faster response speed and better conflict control performance compared to children. Children’s accuracy was affected by the emotional context, whereby children had a lower accuracy in the emotional contexts compared to the non-emotional contexts. Adults had similar performances in both contexts. During the neural processes of conflict detection and conflict resolution, children had longer N2 latencies for conflict detection, and devoted more neural efforts with larger P3 amplitudes to execute resolution control on the conflicts than adults. Moreover, both age groups’ reaction times (RT) were shorter in the Simon task than in the Stroop task in the non-emotional context, while, RTs were longer in the Simon task than in the Stroop task in the emotional context. Children showed larger P3 responses in the Simon task than in the Stroop task in the emotional contexts, while adults showed no such differences. The current findings demonstrate that children have immature neurodevelopment of conflict control compared to adults, and their cognitive control processes on conflicts were distracted by the emotional contexts. Children's emotional conflict control processes were also affected by the characteristic of conflict types, and they need to devote more neural effort to process Simon-like conflicts than Stroop-like conflicts compared to adults.

Whole-brain functional connectivity during script-driven aggression in borderline personality disorder

ObjectiveIntense anger and anger-related aggression are frequently reported by patients with borderline personality disorders (BPD). Recent results suggest that anger-related aggression and its control is associated with a complex interplay of different neural systems in BPD. To further investigate this, we complement standard activation and seed-based connectivity analyses by examining whole-brain changes in functional connectivity during anger and reactive aggression in BPD. MethodsWe reanalyzed functional MRI data from 33 women with BPD, all of them fulfilling BPD criterion 8, “anger proneness”, according to DSM-IV, and 30 healthy women. Subjects performed a script-driven imagery task consisting of four phases: baseline, anger-induction by a narrative of interpersonal rejection, a narrative of directing physical aggression towards others, and relaxation. We used a data-driven, spatially constrained spectral clustering approach to parcellate the brain into 200 regions. For each script-phase and subject, we computed the full connectivity matrix using wavelet coefficient correlations in the 0.05–0.10 Hz range. We calculated the individual increase in connectivity from baseline to the anger-induction and physical aggression phases by subtracting the corresponding connectivity matrices per subject, as well as the increase and decrease from the anger-induction to the aggression phase. We then applied permutation-based sampling to determine a combined threshold on the strength of individual connections and the size of the discovered networks for these difference matrices. ResultsWe discovered a single, large network showing a significantly stronger increase in connectivity from baseline to the aggression phase in female patients with BPD compared to healthy women. This network consisted of regions in the anterior and posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, superior and middle temporal gyrus, hippocampus, insula, ventrolateral and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, superior parietal lobe, thalamus, precentral and postcentral gyrus, caudate, pallidum, cerebellum, middle occipital lobe, lingual gyrus, calcarine sulcus, and fusiform gyrus. Hub regions with highest node centrality were found in the right caudate and left thalamus. We found no significant differences for the increase of connectivity from baseline to anger-induction, as well as for the increase or decrease from the anger-induction to the aggression phase. ConclusionsWe identified a large network showing a significantly stronger increase in connectivity from baseline to the aggression phase in female patients with BPD compared to healthy women. The regions constituting this network belong to four previously described functional networks: The frontoparietal cognitive control network, the extended default mode network, the visual system, and the motor system. This stronger increase in connectivity between regions of different functional brain systems associated with cognitive control of behavior, socio-affective and self-referential thinking, as well as salience processing and emotion regulation, visual perception, and action is mediated via hubs in the thalamus and caudate, i.e., core components of the thalamocorticostriatal motor loop essential for action selection and initiation. These findings suggest increased interaction of prefrontal cognitive control processes with thalamocorticostriatal action-selection processes in female patients with BPD during the processing of aggressive action impulses, which are facilitated by states of high emotional salience and associated processes of self-referential and social processing, and ineffective emotion regulation.

The influence of depressive symptoms on executive functioning in binge eating disorder: A comparison of patients and non-obese healthy controls

Executive functions are a set of cognitive processes that are necessary for the cognitive control of behavior. They play a role in mediating self-control, self-regulation and decision-making. It has been suggested that the inability to control eating behavior in binge eating disorder (BED) may indicate deficits in executive functioning. This may be worsened by depressive symptoms. The aim of the present study was to compare executive functioning of patients with BED and no-to-mild depressive symptoms (n = 25), patients with BED and moderate-to-severe depressive symptoms (n = 66), and healthy controls (Body Mass Index <30) (n = 56), matched on age, educational level and gender. The participants were assessed by means of neuropsychological tests and questionnaires. The neuropsychological tests did not show significant differences in executive functioning between the groups. However, eating disorder psychopathology and depressive symptoms are associated with self-reported difficulties in executive functioning in daily life. A self-report questionnaire which evaluates the functional, real-world impact of executive dysfunction expressed in everyday activities seems to be more useful in this population than neuropsychological tests. This study highlights the importance of taking depressive symptoms into account when studying executive functioning in patients with (binge) eating disorders.

Effect of cognitive behavioral therapy on anxiety and depression of infertile women: A meta–analysis

Objective: To investigate the effect of cognitive behavioral therapy on anxiety and depression in infertile women. Methods: This study was performed in 2019 by searching Google Scholar, Scopus, PubMed/ MEDLINE, Cochrane library, EMBASE, Proquest, ISI Web of Science, MagIran, SID and IranMedex. Eligible studies were selected by two reviewers and outcomes of interest were extracted. The meta-analysis was performed using the random effect models. I - square statistic test was used for heterogeneity analysis. Presence of publication bias was also checked. Results: Eleven studies were included in this review. Between-group differences (cognitive behavioral therapy and control groups) in risk ratio for infertile women's depression was d=-1.36; 95% CI=-1.81, -0.90; P Conclusions: Cognitive behavioral therapy is effective in the reduction of depression and anxiety in patients with or without in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection treatment. However, the lack of high-quality studies makes it challenging to make a solid and precise conclusion. Well-designed studies should be undertaken in the future to confirm these results

Articulatory, acoustic, and prosodic accommodation in a cooperative maze navigation task.

This study uses a maze navigation task in conjunction with a quasi-scripted, prosodically controlled speech task to examine acoustic and articulatory accommodation in pairs of interacting speakers. The experiment uses a dual electromagnetic articulography set-up to collect synchronized acoustic and articulatory kinematic data from two facing speakers simultaneously. We measure the members of a dyad individually before they interact, while they are interacting in a cooperative task, and again individually after they interact. The design is ideally suited to measure speech convergence, divergence, and persistence effects during and after speaker interaction. This study specifically examines how convergence and divergence effects during a dyadic interaction may be related to prosodically salient positions, such as preceding a phrase boundary. The findings of accommodation in fine-grained prosodic measures illuminate our understanding of how the realization of linguistic phrasal structure is coordinated across interacting speakers. Our findings on individual speaker variability and the time course of accommodation provide novel evidence for accommodation at the level of cognitively specified motor control of individual articulatory gestures. Taken together, these results have implications for understanding the cognitive control of interactional behavior in spoken language communication.

Executive Functions Rating Scale and Neurobiochemical Profile in HIV-Positive Individuals.

The set of complex cognitive processes, that are necessary for the cognitive control of behavior, known as executive functions (EF), are traditionally associated with the prefrontal cortex and commonly assessed with laboratory based tests and conventional neuroimaging. In an effort to produce a more complete and ecologically valid understanding of executive functioning, the rating scales have been developed in order to assess the behavioral aspects of EF within an everyday real-world context. The main objective of this study was to examine the relationship between behavioral aspects of EF measured by rating scale and neurometabolic profile in neurologically asymptomatic HIV-positive individuals under cART, measured using multi-voxel magnetic resonance spectroscopy (mvMRS). The sample comprised 39 HIV-positive adult male participants, stable on cART and 39 healthy HIV-negative volunteers. Both groups completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult Version (BRIEF-A). HIV-positive group additionally underwent long-echo three-dimensional mvMRS to determine neurobiochemical profile in the anterior cingulate gyrus (ACG) of both hemispheres. Three dominant neurometabolites were detected: N-acetyl aspartate (NAA), the neuronal marker; choline (Cho), the marker of membrane metabolism and gliosis and creatine (Cr), the reference marker. Ratios of NAA/Cr and Cho/Cr were analyzed. The initially detected significant correlations between age, current CD4, BRIEF-A subscales Inhibit, Shift, Emotional Control, Plan/Organize, Self Monitoring and ratios of NAA/Cr and Cho/Cr in the dorsal and ventral part of the ACG, were lost after the introduction of Bonferroni corrections. Also, there were no significant differences between HIV–positive and HIV–negative group on any of BRIEF-A subscales. Such results possibly imply that stable cART regimen contributes to preservation of behavioral aspects of EF in asymptomatic HIV-positive individuals. Even though a subtle deficit in some aspects of EF might exist, it would not be manifest if behavioral aspect was assessed using EF rating scale. Further explanation might be that expected HIV-related changes in neurometabolic profile of the ACG under cART are not reflected in those behavioral aspects that are measurable by EF rating scale.

Virtual Reality May Soon Become Clinical Reality in Psychosis Care

Virtual Reality May Soon Become Clinical Reality in Psychosis Care

Excessive use of mobile social networking sites and poor academic performance: Antecedents and consequences from stressor-strain-outcome perspective

The problematic use of social networking sites (SNSs) and its adverse consequences have become prevalent, yet little is known about the etiology of the problematic use of SNSs and academic performance. This study applied stress–strain–outcome (SSO) as the foundation of the model, and the proposed model was further refined using auxiliary theories such as dual-system theory. The statistical analyses of time-lagged data collected from 505 mobile SNS users imply that the excessive use of mobile SNSs causes a cognitive–emotional preoccupation and that cognitive–behavioral control in using SNSs weakens this relationship to overcome negative outcomes. Negative consequences diminish the academic performance of SNS users. This study contributed to research on the dark side of information system use by conceptualizing problematic use and explaining its drivers and consequences. This research provided important theoretical and practical implications.

Basal Ganglia Neuromodulation Over Multiple Temporal and Structural Scales-Simulations of Direct Pathway MSNs Investigate the Fast Onset of Dopaminergic Effects and Predict the Role of Kv4.2.

The basal ganglia are involved in the motivational and habitual control of motor and cognitive behaviors. Striatum, the largest basal ganglia input stage, integrates cortical and thalamic inputs in functionally segregated cortico-basal ganglia-thalamic loops, and in addition the basal ganglia output nuclei control targets in the brainstem. Striatal function depends on the balance between the direct pathway medium spiny neurons (D1-MSNs) that express D1 dopamine receptors and the indirect pathway MSNs that express D2 dopamine receptors. The striatal microstructure is also divided into striosomes and matrix compartments, based on the differential expression of several proteins. Dopaminergic afferents from the midbrain and local cholinergic interneurons play crucial roles for basal ganglia function, and striatal signaling via the striosomes in turn regulates the midbrain dopaminergic system directly and via the lateral habenula. Consequently, abnormal functions of the basal ganglia neuromodulatory system underlie many neurological and psychiatric disorders. Neuromodulation acts on multiple structural levels, ranging from the subcellular level to behavior, both in health and disease. For example, neuromodulation affects membrane excitability and controls synaptic plasticity and thus learning in the basal ganglia. However, it is not clear on what time scales these different effects are implemented. Phosphorylation of ion channels and the resulting membrane effects are typically studied over minutes while it has been shown that neuromodulation can affect behavior within a few hundred milliseconds. So how do these seemingly contradictory effects fit together? Here we first briefly review neuromodulation of the basal ganglia, with a focus on dopamine. We furthermore use biophysically detailed multi-compartmental models to integrate experimental data regarding dopaminergic effects on individual membrane conductances with the aim to explain the resulting cellular level dopaminergic effects. In particular we predict dopaminergic effects on Kv4.2 in D1-MSNs. Finally, we also explore dynamical aspects of the onset of neuromodulation effects in multi-scale computational models combining biochemical signaling cascades and multi-compartmental neuron models.

Advances in the development of a cognitive user interface

In this contribution, we want to summarize recent development steps of the embedded cognitive user interface UCUI, which enables a user-adaptive scenario in human-machine or even human-robot interactions by considering sophisticated cognitive and semantic modelling. The interface prototype is developed by different German institutes and companies with their steering teams at Fraunhofer IKTS and Brandenburg University of Technology. The interface prototype is able to communicate with users via speech and gesture recognition, speech synthesis and a touch display. The device includes an autarkic semantic processing and beyond a cognitive behavior control, which supports an intuitive interaction to control different kinds of electronic devices, e. g. in a smart home environment or in interactive respectively collaborative robotics. Contrary to available speech assistance systems such as Amazon Echo or Google Home, the introduced cognitive user interface UCUI ensures the user privacy by processing all necessary information without any network access of the interface device.

Supplemental Material for Internet-Based Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Versus Psychoeducation Control for Illness Anxiety Disorder and Somatic Symptom Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Supplemental Material for Internet-Based Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Versus Psychoeducation Control for Illness Anxiety Disorder and Somatic Symptom Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Prefrontal cortical-specific differences in behavior and synaptic plasticity between adolescent and adult mice.

Adolescence is a highly vulnerable period for the emergence of major neuropsychological disorders and is characterized by decreased cognitive control and increased risk-taking behavior and novelty-seeking. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is involved in the cognitive control of impulsive and risky behavior. Although the PFC is known to reach maturation later than other cortical areas, little information is available regarding the functional changes from adolescence to adulthood in PFC, particularly compared with other primary cortical areas. This study aims to understand the development of PFC-mediated, compared with non-PFC-mediated, cognitive functions. Toward this aim, we performed cognitive behavioral tasks in adolescent and adult mice and subsequently investigated synaptic plasticity in two different cortical areas. Our results showed that adolescent mice exhibit impaired performance in PFC-dependent cognitive tasks compared with adult mice, whereas their performance in non-PFC-dependent tasks is similar to that of adults. Furthermore, adolescent mice exhibited decreased long-term potentiation (LTP) within upper-layer synapses of the PFC but not the barrel cortex. Blocking GABAA receptor function significantly augments LTP in both the adolescent and adult PFC. No change in intrinsic excitability of PFC pyramidal neurons was observed between adolescent and adult mice. Finally, increased expression of the NR2A subunit of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors is found only in the adult PFC, a change that could underlie the emergence of LTP. In conclusion, our results demonstrate physiological and behavioral changes during adolescence that are specific to the PFC and could underlie the reduced cognitive control in adolescents. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study reports that adolescent mice exhibit impaired performance in cognitive functions dependent on the prefrontal cortex but not in cognitive functions dependent on other cortical regions. The current results propose reduced synaptic plasticity in the upper layers of the prefrontal cortex as a cellular correlate of this weakened cognitive function. This decreased synaptic plasticity is due to reduced N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor expression but not due to dampened intrinsic excitability or enhanced GABAergic signaling during adolescence.

Noradrenaline Modulates the Membrane Potential and Holding Current of Medial Prefrontal Cortex Pyramidal Neurons via β1-Adrenergic Receptors and HCN Channels.

The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) receives dense noradrenergic projections from the locus coeruleus. Adrenergic innervation of mPFC pyramidal neurons plays an essential role in both physiology (control of memory formation, attention, working memory, and cognitive behavior) and pathophysiology (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, cognitive deterioration after traumatic brain injury, behavioral changes related to addiction, Alzheimer’s disease and depression). The aim of this study was to elucidate the mechanism responsible for adrenergic receptor-mediated control of the resting membrane potential in layer V mPFC pyramidal neurons. The membrane potential or holding current of synaptically isolated layer V mPFC pyramidal neurons was recorded in perforated-patch and classical whole-cell configurations in slices from young rats. Application of noradrenaline (NA), a neurotransmitter with affinity for all types of adrenergic receptors, evoked depolarization or inward current in the tested neurons irrespective of whether the recordings were performed in the perforated-patch or classical whole-cell configuration. The effect of noradrenaline depended on β1- and not α1- or α2-adrenergic receptor stimulation. Activation of β1-adrenergic receptors led to an increase in inward Na+ current through hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels, which carry a mixed Na+/K+ current. The protein kinase A- and C-, glycogen synthase kinase-3β- and tyrosine kinase-linked signaling pathways were not involved in the signal transduction between β1-adrenergic receptors and HCN channels. The transduction system operated in a membrane-delimited fashion and involved the βγ subunit of G-protein. Thus, noradrenaline controls the resting membrane potential and holding current in mPFC pyramidal neurons through β1-adrenergic receptors, which in turn activate HCN channels via a signaling pathway involving the βγ subunit.

Concept of Will as an Open Problem in Culture-Historical Context

Outlines a new approach to the problem of development of will, emanating from the tradition of thought represented by Vygotsky and Bozhovich. The main conceptual de-velopment lies in drawing a distinction between two concepts – will (volya) and goal appropriation, self-regulation, executive cognitive control of behavior (proyzvolnost’). Both concepts emphasize the readiness and ability of an individual to pursue a goal. The distinction lies in the nature of that goal determination. In will, it is self generated and comes from the inner world of the individual while in goal appropriation, it is determined by an external source but is readily appropriated. A such distinction is supported by re-cent findings in neuroscience which describe the actualization of di˙erent brain structures depending on whether an individual acts upon will or willingly submission. Hence, the personality development is considered as a process of will development in which will and goal appropriation inter plays and progresses in specific stages paving the way for subjunctivization or becoming a true subject of that culture.

Neuronal Subset-Specific Migration and Axonal Wiring Mechanisms in the Developing Midbrain Dopamine System.

The midbrain dopamine (mDA) system is involved in the control of cognitive and motor behaviors, and is associated with several psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. mDA neurons receive diverse afferent inputs and establish efferent connections with many brain areas. Recent studies have unveiled a high level of molecular and cellular heterogeneity within the mDA system with specific subsets of mDA neurons displaying select molecular profiles and connectivity patterns. During mDA neuron development, molecular differences between mDA neuron subsets allow the establishment of subset-specific afferent and efferent connections and functional roles. In this review, we summarize and discuss recent work defining novel mDA neuron subsets based on specific molecular signatures. Then, molecular cues are highlighted that control mDA neuron migration during embryonic development and that facilitate the formation of selective patterns of efferent connections. The review focuses largely on studies that show differences in these mechanisms between different subsets of mDA neurons and for which in vivo data is available, and is concluded by a section that discusses open questions and provides directions for further research.

الاستعداد الریادی لدى طلاب جامعة تبوک: دراسة العوامل المؤثرة باستخدام نظریة السلوک المخطط

Entrepreneurial Intentions of Tabuk University Students: A Study of Influencing Factors Using the Theory of Planned Behavior ملخص البحث تعد ريادة الأعمال (Entrepreneurship) بمثابة أحد القوى الرئيسية والمشجعة على تحقيق النمو الاقتصادي والاجتماعي في العديد من دول العالم. فقد اظهرت الكثير من الدراسات مدى مساهمتها في زيادة النمو الاقتصادي من خلال خلق فرص توظف وتخفيض البطالة وتشجيع عملية الابتكار. ويعتبر رواد الأعمال العنصر المحرك لريادة الأعمال على المستويين العالمي والقومي. ومن جانب آخر، يقترح العديد من الدراسات الحديثة ضرورة دراسة النية الريادية Entrepreneurial Intention باعتبارها مدخلا هاما وذات معنى لمعرفة السلوك الريادي الفعلي. وترجع أهمية دراسة النية الريادية من خلال ما تظهره الدراسات الحديثة في مجال ريادة الأعمال. وفى ضوء مثل هذه الدراسات، تعتبر النية الريادية بمثابة محور فهم العملية الريادية (Entrepreneurship Process) بغرض إنشاء مشاريع أعمال جديدة. إن الغرض الأساسي من المقترح البحثي الحالي هو إجراء دراسة ميدانية من أجل تحليل النية الريادية بين طلاب وطالبات جامعة تبوك وبخاصة طلاب كلية إدارة الأعمال، وذلك من خلال تطبيق نموذج نظرية السلوك المخطط (Ajzen,1991) وفي سياق جامعة وثقافة مختلفة عن عينات الدراسات السابقة. لذا تم دراسة عينة عشوائية تقدر بحوالي 324 طالب وطالبة بمرحلة البكالوريوس، وأسفرت نتائج الدراسة عن وجود علاقات ارتباط ذات دلالة إحصائية معنوية بين المتغيرات المستقلة الثلاث في الدراسة الحالية (الاتجاه النفسي– الأعراف الاجتماعية-التحكم السلوكي) والمتغير التابع وهو النية الريادية. وتتفق نتائج مثل تلك العلاقات السابقة مع العديد من الدراسات، وعلى صعيد آخر، أشارت الدراسة إلى عدم وجود علاقات ارتباط ذات دلالة احصائية معنوية بين متغيرات الخلفية الريادية من جانب والنية الريادية من جانب آخر. وبالنسبة للاختلافات الخاصة بمتغيرات الخلفية الشخصية والاجتماعية، فقد وجد أن هناك اختلافات في متغيرات (الاتجاه النفسي،الأعراف الاجتماعية، والنوايا الريادية) باختلاف النوع الاجتماعي للطلاب (ذكر- انثى). أما بالنسبة لمجال التخصص، فقد لوحظ اختلاف متغير الاتجاه النفسي نحو السلوك الريادي باختلاف مجال التخصص (تمويل واستثمار- إدارة الأعمال – المحاسبة – التسويق). مفتــــاح الكلمــــات السلوك الريادي- النية الريادية – نظرية السلوك المخطط- الاتجاه النفسي نحو السلوك الريادي- الأعراف الاجتماعية للسلوك الريادي-التحكم السلوكي المدرك – متغيرات الخلفية الريادية للطالب- متغيرات الخلفية الشخصية والاجتماعيــــــة Abstract Entrepreneurship has been recog-nized as one of the major forces to pr-omote economic and social develop-ment across many countries in the wo-rld. Many studies have proven that it has a significant contribution for econ-omic development which is achieved by creating employment opportunities and generating innovation. Entrepreneurs are crucial for national and regional ec-onomic development. Many studies su-ggest that examining entrepreneurial intention is a meaningful approach to study actual entrepreneurial behavior. The significance examining entrepren-eurial intention is evident from recent empirical studies in the field of entre-preneurship (Table 1). Entrepreneurial intention is the first step and central to understand the entrepreneurship process to start up a new business.The main aim of this proposal is to conduct an empi-rical study to examine the entreprene-urial intention among students of Tab-uck University by applying the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991 ) in the context of a different society and culture than those of previous studies. Thus, about 324 students were studied in the bachelor's degree, and the results of the study showed that there were statistically significant correlation bet-ween the independent variables in the current study (trend - social criteria - behavioral control) and the dependent variable, which is the entrepreneurial intention. On the other hand, the results of the study indicate that there are no statistically significant correlations bet-ween the variables of the entrepren-eurial background on the one hand and the entrepreneurial intention on the other. For differences in social backgr-ound variables, differences were found in variables (behavioral direction, social criteria, and entrepreneurial intentions) by gender (male / female). As for the field of specialization, it was noticed that the variable trend towards leading behavior varies according to the field of specialization (Finance and investment - business administration - accounting - marketing). Key Words Entrepreneurial Behavior – Entrep-reneurial Intention - Planned behavior Theory - Attitudes toward Entrepre-neurial Behavior - Social Norms of En-trepreneurial Behavior - Cognitive Be-havioral Control - Student Entreprene-urial Background - Personal and Social Background

Pace Yourself: Intraindividual Variability in Context Use Revealed by Self-paced Event-related Brain Potentials.

Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) have revealed multiple mechanisms by which contextual constraints impact language processing. At the same time, little work has examined the trial-to-trial dynamics of context use in the brain. In the current study, we probed intraindividual variability in behavioral and neural indices of context processing during reading. In a concurrent self-paced reading and ERP paradigm, participants read sentences that were either strongly or weakly constraining completed with an expected or unexpected target word. Our findings revealed substantial within-subject variability in behavioral and neural responses to contextual constraints. First, context-based amplitude reductions of the N400, a component linked to semantic memory access, were largest among trials eliciting the slowest RTs. Second, the RT distribution of unexpected words in strongly constraining contexts was positively skewed, reflecting an increased proportion of very slow RTs to trials that violated semantic predictions. Among those prediction-violating trials eliciting faster RTs, a late sustained anterior positivity was observed. However, among trials producing the differentially slowed RTs to prediction violations, we observed a markedly earlier effect of constraint in the form of an anterior N2, a component linked to conflict resolution and the cognitive control of behavior. The current study provides the first neurophysiological evidence for the direct role of cognitive control functions in the volitional control of reading. Collectively, our findings suggest that context use varies substantially within individual participants and that coregistering behavioral and neural indices of online sentence processing offers a window into these single-item dynamics.