Cognitive Attributions Research Articles

The Role of Anger Cognitions and Anger Rumination in Predicting Externalizing and Internalizing Problems in Adolescence.

This study aims to examine the relative contribution of anger cognitions and anger rumination in predicting externalizing and internalizing problems among 180 adolescents (aged 11-18 years) using correlational and linear regression analysis. Our findings showed that anger rumination predicted both externalizing (aggressive behaviors) and internalizing problems (anxious, depressive, and somatic symptoms). In contrast, biased anger cognitions did not appear to meaningfully predict either externalizing or internalizing symptoms, with the only exception of the hostile verbal labels and catastrophic cognitive attributions, a factor that was significantly associated with both rule-breaking behaviors (ß = .339, p < .01) and aggressive behaviors (ß = .238, p < .05). Anger rumination accounted for a higher rate of variance of psychopathology compared with anger cognitions and should be addressed in interventions for either externalizing or internalizing symptoms in adolescence.

Women with depression in pregnancy or a history of depression have decreased quality of mentalization in the speech to their infants.

Our study aims to understand whether depression, either in pregnancy or lifetime, affects cognitive biases (comprising the attentional focus and affective state) and mentalizing features (ability to understand children's internal mental states, thereby detecting and comprehending their behavior and intention), in maternal speech during mother-infant interaction in the first postnatal year. We recruited 115 pregnant women (44 healthy, 46 with major depressive disorder [MDD] in pregnancy, and 25 with a history of MDD but healthy pregnancy) at 25 weeks' gestation. Three-minute videos were recorded at 8 weeks and 12 months postnatally for each dyad. Maternal speech was transcribed verbatim and coded for cognitive biases and mentalizing comments using the Parental Cognitive Attributions and Mentalization Scale (PCAMs). Women suffering from antenatal depression showed a decreased proportion of mentalizing comments compared with healthy women, at both 8 weeks (0.03 ± 0.01 vs. 0.07 ± 0.01, P = 0.002) and 12 months (0.02 ± 0.01 vs. 0.04 ± 0.01, P = 0.043). Moreover, compared with healthy women, both those with antenatal depression and those with a history of depression showed decreased positive affection in speech (0.13 ± 0.01 vs. 0.07 ± 0.01 and 0.08 ± 0.02, respectively P = 0.003 and P = 0.043), and made significantly fewer comments focused on their infants' experience at 8 weeks (0.67 ± 0.03 vs. 0.53 ± 0.04 and 0.49 ± 0.05, respectively P = 0.015 and P = 0.005). In linear regression models women's socioeconomic difficulties and anxiety in pregnancy contribute to these associations, while postnatal depression did not. Both antenatal depression and a lifetime history of depression are associated with a decreased quality of women's speech to their infants, as shown by less focus on their infant's experience, decreased positive affection, and less able to mentalize. Examining maternal speech to their infants in the early postnatal months may be particularly relevant to identify women who could benefit from strategies addressing these aspects of the interactive behavior and thus improve infant outcome in the context of depression.

Linking Intuitive Physics to Social Cognitive Attributions

Linking Intuitive Physics to Social Cognitive Attributions

Processing emotions from faces and words measured by event-related brain potentials

ABSTRACT Affective aspects of a stimulus can be processed rapidly and before cognitive attribution, acting much earlier for verbal stimuli than previously considered. Aimed for specific mechanisms, event-related brain potentials (ERPs), expressed in facial expressions or word meaning and evoked by six basic emotions – anger, disgust, fear, happy, sad, and surprise – relative to emotionally neutral stimuli were analysed in a sample of 116 participants. Brain responses in the occipital and left temporal regions elicited by the sadness in facial expressions or words were indistinguishable from responses evoked by neutral faces or words. Confirming previous findings, facial fear elicited an early and strong posterior negativity. Instead of expected parietal positivity, both the happy faces and words produced significantly more negative responses compared to neutral. Surprise in facial expressions and words elicited a strong early response in the left temporal cortex, which could be a signature of appraisal. The results of this study are consistent with the view that both types of affective stimuli, facial emotions and word meaning, set off rapid processing and responses occur very early in the processing stage.

Firm-Specific Investor Sentiment, Confirmation Bias, and Market Response to Earnings Information

Purpose - This study investigates the effect of firm-specific investor sentiment on the asymmetry of the market’s response to signed earnings of accounting information (i.e., positive/negative unexpected earnings). Applying cognitive attribution (i.e., confirmation bias), which arises due to the incongruency of prior and new information to market earning reactions, this paper aims to provide another insight into the market’s efficiency of accounting information.&#x0D; Design/Methodology/Approach - This study hypothesizes that firm-specific investor sentiment is associated with market reactions to earnings information. Using 4,802 firm-year observations of KSE listed firms from 2011 to 2018, this study conducts a series of multiple regression analyses that estimate the moderate/ incremental effect of investor sentiment on market earnings responses.&#x0D; Findings - The analysis results show that on average, firm-specific sentiment plays a role as a reference in interpreting subsequent earnings information. This leads investors to under-react to signed earnings at the announcement date, relying on the sentiment level.&#x0D; Research Implications - This study is distinct from prior literature in using individual firm investor sentiment deemed to be relatively faithful for representing the external mood of firms. By linking the market’s earnings response with investor cognitive attribution (i.e., confirmation bias), this study looks more closely into market informational efficiency.

Cognitive Outcome Attainment of The Undergraduate Civil Engineering Students before and During COVID-19

This paper describes the performance of cognitive outcomes attainment of the undergraduate diploma in civil engineering students at Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Johor Branch, Pasir Gudang Campus. Specifically, this study examined the different cognitive outcomes attained among this population from before until during the implementation of the Movement Control Order (MCO) starting in the March 2020 semester. The study utilised data from the Programme Outcomes (POs) analysis by the Outcomes Based Education Committee every semester. This study identified different cognitive outcome attainments both before and during the COVID-19 semesters among students. The attainments used for the students are based on the Averaging Model, in which all courses contributing to the achievements are considered in the calculation of the cognitive outcomes average. The increase in percentages recorded from the result indicates that the shift to online learning has a useful effect on students’ performances in cognitive attribution. Findings also show that some assessment grades, such as assignments, quizzes, and tests during COVID-19 semesters, can possibly improve greater achievements in cognitive level among students. The study discusses the implementation and functional descriptions of the findings and how they would be beneficial to stakeholders.

Managing price changes: Role of consumer thinking styles on perceived price fairness and purchase intention

Consumers expect companies to practice fair pricing. Understanding the underlying cognitive mechanism that determines consumers’ price fairness perceptions is significant. It could help mitigate negative outcomes from unfairness perceptions and place firms in a better competitive position. This study examines the role of consumers’ thinking styles in perceived price fairness and purchase intention in a price increase situation. An online experiment was conducted wherein 171 participants across India, primarily from tier-1 cities frequently using car rental services, took part from September to December 2021. The majority of the participants (72) were 21-30 years old (42%). All involved participants met the initial criteria of using car rental services at least once a week. Proposed hypotheses were checked by one-way ANOVA following Tukey post hoc test and PROCESS. One-way ANOVA results shows a significant influence of thinking styles on cognitive attribution with large effect size, F(2, 168) = 28.04, p &amp;amp;lt; .001, η2 = 0.25; presents a significant influence of thinking styles on perceived price fairness with large effect size, F(2, 168) = 30.07, p &amp;amp;lt; .001, η2 = .0.26; demonstrates a significant influence of thinking styles on purchase intention F(2, 168) = 19.94, p &amp;amp;lt; .001, η2 = .0.19. Findings revealed that, in the face of a price increase occurrence, consumers thinking holistically and analytically differ in perceived price fairness and purchase intention. Furthermore, holistic thinkers with higher cognitive attribution perceive a price increase as fairer. Thereby, they have higher purchase intention than analytic thinkers. Acknowledgment This study received support from Internal Grant Agency (project number IGA/FaME/2022/010), Tomas Bata University in Zlín.

Is a success story of an underdog more powerful than one of a similar other? examining effects of model similarity and success attribution on intention to exercise

ABSTRACT Success stories are often used to promote health behaviors. This study examined how different features of others’ success stories about achieving an exercise goal influence observers’ intentions to exercise. The specific factors examined were success stories’ model similarity (similar vs. underdog model) and success attribution type (internal vs. external attribution message) on individuals’ expectations of their success and intentions to exercise. The results of an online experiment (N = 282) showed that success stories of similar models led to greater success expectancy than those of underdog models through the increased perception of model similarity. Further, success stories focusing on external – as opposed to internal – attribution resulted in greater success expectancy through increased external attribution of models’ success. Success expectancy then increased intention to exercise. This study concludes by discussing the theoretical implications for social cognitive theory and attribution theory as well as practical implications for designing health promotion messages.

Who displays dementia-related stigma and what does the general public know about dementia? Findings from a nationally representative survey

Objectives To identify the characteristics of those who tend to hold stigmatising beliefs and behaviours towards people living with dementia to inform dementia education and the targeting of interventions to reduce dementia-related stigma. Methods: A nationally representative telephone survey of 1000 Australians aged 18–93 years was conducted to assess general knowledge of dementia and dementia-related stigma. A single open-ended question was used to assess participants’ general knowledge of dementia. Modified items from the Lay Public Dimension of the Family Stigma in Alzheimer’s Disease Scale were used to assess dementia-related stigma. Results: Only 26% of participants demonstrated good dementia knowledge while almost half of the participants had a mixed understanding of dementia. Dementia-related negative cognitive attributions were found to be higher in (1) the older age cohorts, (2) amongst individuals who know someone with dementia, (3) speak a language other than English at home, and (4) have a better understanding of dementia. Older age cohorts, men, those who do not know someone with dementia, and those who speak a non-English language at home also reported significantly higher discriminatory behavioural reactions compared to the younger age cohorts, females, those who know someone with dementia, and those who speak English only at home. Conclusions: This study identifies a need for improved public education about dementia. A structured approach to the development of strategies that is specifically tailored to different age, gender and cultural groups may provide a beneficial approach to help improve dementia knowledge and reduce dementia-related stigma in the population.

You’ll never want to watch alone: the effect of displaying in-stadium social atmospherics on media consumers’ responses to new sport leagues across different types of media

ABSTRACT Research question This paper examines how displaying fans in the stadium using different types of visual content (pictures and videos) influences media consumers’ responses to sport leagues previously unknown to them. Specifically, we investigate how high versus low displays of social atmospherics in pictures and videos affect consumers’ cognitive (attributions of attractiveness to the league) and affective (emotional arousal) responses. In addition, we analyze how these responses transfer to intentions to watch future broadcasts. Research methods The hypotheses are tested in two online experiments using one-factorial (social atmospherics: high versus low) between-subjects designs. The research context is German sport media consumers and promotional material of the Australian Football League (AFL). Results and findings The findings suggest that displaying high (versus low) social atmospherics in pictures can increase the perceived attractiveness that consumers attribute to a new sport league, while such content in videos increases consumers’ emotional arousal. These cognitive and affective processes transfer to intentions to view future broadcasts of the league. Implications Our findings imply that while on-site fans are declining in relative numbers in media-dominated professional team sport markets, these fans are highly relevant for the success of team sport-related media offers and the attraction of new consumers.

Konsep Stoisisme Untuk Mengatasi Emosi Negatif Menurut Henry Manampiring

Emosional management skills are improtant because they have a greater contribution to a person’s succes than intellectual intelligence. Good emotional management concerns how individuals are able to understand the feelings of others and themselves so that they can put themselves in the right position and behave well towards themselves and others. This is relevant to today’s life which is full of uncertainty such as many individual hoaxes. The purpose of this researchis to describe how the consept of Stoicism according to Henry Manampiring and describing circulating on social media that can cause negative emotions in the method with a descriptive approach anda data collection in the form of documentation. Stoicism is a concept which by its essence amor fati frees oneself from this sense of dependence anda anxiety taht is not used properly it will cause negative emotions, dependence and excessive worry. The results show that the stoicism concept is effective in evercoming negative emotions as contained in the core philosophy book by applying the control dichotomy, control trichotomy, and can also use the S-T-A-R steps. Or it could be by transferring emotions the way is kartasis, rationalization and contemplation. Then, cognitive adjustment in the form of cognitive attribution and empathy, then coping how to use Stoicism concept to overcome negative emotions. For our qualitative method on the use of the control dichotomy. Reasoning or contol applies a trichoyomy. Understanding and seita occurs in the strategy sena in the form of emotional and problem focused coping .

Disconnectome of the migraine brain: a \u201cconnectopathy\u201d model

BackgroundIn the past decades a plethora of studies has been conducted to explore resting-state functional connectivity (RS-FC) of the brain networks in migraine with conflicting results probably due to the variability and susceptibility of signal fluctuations across the course of RS-FC scan. On the other hand, the structural substrates enabling the functional communications among the brain connectome, characterized by higher stability and reproducibility, have not been widely investigated in migraine by means of graph analysis approach. We hypothesize a rearrangement of the brain connectome with an increase of both strength and density of connections between cortical areas specifically involved in pain perception, processing and modulation in migraine patients. Moreover, such connectome rearrangement, inducing an imbalance between the competing parameters of network efficiency and segregation, may underpin a mismatch between energy resources and demand representing the neuronal correlate of the energetically dysfunctional migraine brain.MethodsWe investigated, using diffusion-weighted MRI imaging tractography-based graph analysis, the graph-topological indices of the brain “connectome”, a set of grey matter regions (nodes) structurally connected by white matter paths (edges) in 94 patients with migraine without aura compared to 91 healthy controls.ResultsWe observed in migraine patients compared to healthy controls: i) higher local and global network efficiency (p < 0.001) and ii) higher local and global clustering coefficient (p < 0.001). Moreover, we found changes in the hubs topology in migraine patients with: i) posterior cingulate cortex and inferior parietal lobule (encompassing the so-called neurolimbic-pain network) assuming the hub role and ii) fronto-orbital cortex, involved in emotional aspects, and visual areas, involved in migraine pathophysiology, losing the hub role. Finally, we found higher connection (edges) probability between cortical nodes involved in pain perception and modulation as well as in cognitive and affective attribution of pain experiences, in migraine patients when compared to healthy controls (p < 0.001). No correlations were found between imaging and clinical parameters of disease severity.ConclusionThe imbalance between the need of investing resources to promote network efficiency and the need of minimizing the metabolic cost of wiring probably represents the mechanism underlying migraine patients’ susceptibility to triggers. Such changes in connectome topography suggest an intriguing pathophysiological model of migraine as brain “connectopathy”.

Player or platform? How metaphors affect the attribution of actorhood to new forms of organizing

As discussed in the literature on organizational actorhood, organizations either tend to pronounce or downplay their status as collective actors. While prior work has primarily focused on actorhood attributions on the level of public communication, we study the causal interplay between public communication and individual perceptions of organizational actorhood. For this purpose, we conduced four empirical studies to show how anthropomorphic metaphors (e.g., player or participant) and non-anthropomorphic metaphors (such as platform or app) used in organizational portrayals affect cognitive attributions of collective actorhood to organizational entities. We embed our study in the context of new organizational forms (e.g., digital platform organizations) because here the question of organizational actorhood and responsibility is particularly salient. We show that the use of anthropomorphic metaphors in organizational portrayals lead to higher levels of individuals’ attributions of collective actorhood to organizations. Such higher levels of organizational actorhood attribution occur, as we demonstrate, due to anthropomorphic metaphors directing individuals’ attention to the organization as a collective entity rather than to its constitutive parts (e.g., members, products).

I Need a Doctor, Call Me a Doctor: Attachment and the Evaluation of General Practitioners before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Attachment is a system of threat regulation, and insecure (anxious and avoidant) attachment orientations are important individual difference antecedents to the cognitive and affective attributions of trait inferences. However, little is known about how threat-related contexts, such as the current COVID-19 pandemic, influence attachment-related socio-cognitive schemas. Using an experimental research design across two independent samples of 330 (pre-onset of COVID-19) and 233 (post-onset of COVID-19) participants, we tested whether attachment orientations influenced general practitioner (GP) ratings and selection differently pre- and post-onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. We found that during the COVID-19 pandemic, when presented with only negative information signals, avoidant individuals attributed positive ratings to GPs, with differing ratings as the number of positive signals increased. Differences between pre- and post-onset of the COVID-19 pandemic were less pronounced with regards to positive signals. We discuss these results in line with signal detection theory (SDT) and provide practical implications in response to our findings.

Normalization as a mediator of emotion during unemployment

ABSTRACT Meta-analyses indicated detrimental effects on some psychological dimensions from job loss and extended periods of unemployment. This study analyses three phenomena: causes attributed to unemployment; processes for coping with unemployment; and the emotional impact of joblessness. Using an SEM approach, a model is created in which unemployment normalization acts as a mediator between locus of control and emotions. Method: questionnaires from 260 unemployed people in Luxembourg provided data on perceived control, coping, and emotions. Participants who attribute their situation to bad luck, believe more strongly that unemployment is due to external factors beyond their control, and recognize unemployment as being a common occurrence in life. Such cognitive attribution of unemployment has effects on job seekers’ emotions. Those who perceive unemployment in a more positive light experience more positive emotions and fewer negative affects. Negative perceptions of unemployment have no effect on the generation of positive emotion, but have an influence on negative affects. Finally, the influence of perceived-control on emotion is not direct, but is mediated by processes of unemployment normalization. Understanding how unemployed people perceive and experience their situations could help them be more effective in their search for new employment.

Reason versus feeling: relational norms influence gift choices

PurposeRelational norms, referring to shared values about behavioral rules, distinguish communal and exchange relationships based on different reciprocal expectations between actors. This research explains how reciprocal expectations behind the two relationships trigger gift givers' disparate behavioral goals and further determine their gift choices.Design/methodology/approachThe current work uses three lab experiments (N = 482) and one consumer survey (N = 422) to collect Chinese gifting data. Multiple data-analysis methods – crosstab analysis, ANOVA, linear regression and bootstrapping procedures – confirm the hypotheses.FindingsGift givers distinguish communal and exchange recipients. When selecting gifts for communal (exchange) recipients, people depended more strongly on rational analyses (intuition), preferring products superior on cognitive (affective) attributions. Further, givers primed to be rational decision-makers by anticipating that recipients would evaluate the gifts immediately in their presence, regardless of the communal or exchange context, preferred cognitively superior products.Practical implicationsFrom a managerial perspective, marketers can make targeted recommendations by highlighting the appropriate attribute dimension (cognitive or affective) after learning givers' reciprocal expectations.Originality/valueThis work contributes to the gift-giving literature by revealing the direct link between gifting goals and gift choices, extending the understanding of consumers' gift-selection strategies.

Seasonality of mood and affect in a large general population sample.

Mood and behaviour are thought to be under considerable influence of the seasons, but evidence is not unequivocal. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether mood and affect are related to the seasons, and what is the role of neuroticism in this association. In a national internet-based crowdsourcing project in the Dutch general population, individuals were invited to assess themselves on several domains of mental health. ANCOVA was used to test for differences between the seasons in mean scores on the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS). Within-subject seasonal differences were tested as well, in a subgroup that completed the PANAS twice. The role of neuroticism as a potential moderator of seasonality was examined. Participants (n = 5,282) scored significantly higher on positive affect (PANAS) and lower on depressive symptoms (QIDS) in spring compared to summer, autumn and winter. They also scored significantly lower on negative affect in spring compared to autumn. Effect sizes were small or very small. Neuroticism moderated the effect of the seasons, with only participants higher on neuroticism showing seasonality. There was no within-subject seasonal effect for participants who completed the questionnaires twice (n = 503), nor was neuroticism a significant moderator of this within-subjects effect. The findings of this study in a general population sample participating in an online crowdsourcing study do not support the widespread belief that seasons influence mood to a great extent. For, as far as the seasons did influence mood, this only applied to highly neurotic participants and not to low-neurotic participants. The underlying mechanism of cognitive attribution may explain the perceived relation between seasonality and neuroticism.

Does Work Stressors Lead to Abusive Supervision? A Study of Differentiated Effects of Challenge and Hindrance Stressors.

PurposeFrom the perspective of affective events theory, the present study examines whether two distinct categories stressors (challenge-hindrance stressors) have different effects (hindrance or promotion) on abusive supervision.Materials and MethodsThe data of 203 pairs of supervisor–subordinate have been collected from 12 different Chinese enterprises.We first conducted confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) in Lisrel software to test the model’s validity. And then, we used the descriptive statistics to example the correlations of variables. Finally, we conducted hierarchical regression analysis and bootstrap methods to test hypotheses.ResultsThe finding shows that two distinct categories stressors have different indirect effects (hindrance or promotion) on abusive supervision. Specifically, challenge stressors reduce abusive supervision through positive affective experience, while hindrance stressors increase abusive supervision through negative affective experience. In addition, locus of control plays a first-stage moderated-mediation role in the indirect effect of challenge stressors on abusive supervision and in the indirect effect of hindrance stressors on abusive supervision.ConclusionThis study offers some comprehensive insights for why and when challenge stressors and hindrance stressors have different effects on abusive supervision. This study extends the current literature by directly testing two different underlying psychological mechanisms (resource acquisition and resource depletion), which are responsible for the different effects of challenge stressors and hindrance stressors. Also, individuals’ cognitive attribution tendency is confirmed as boundary conditions of the direct effect of work stressors on affective experience and indirect effects of work stressors on abusive supervision.

СЕРІАЛ ТА ПОЛІТИЧНЕ ШОУ ЯК НОВІ ФОРМИ ПОЛІТИЧНОЇ МЕДІАКОМУНІКАЦІЇ

&lt;div&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;During the 2019 election campaign in Ukraine, one of the candidates successfully used the serial and political show.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The purpose of the article is to describe the use of the serial and political show in the election campaign, to find out the reasons for the successful use of these new forms of political media communication. &lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The study applied the method of social and psychological justification of electoral behavior under the influence of non-traditional forms of political media communication. The theoretical basis of the study is the theories of cognitive dissonance and cognitive congruence, social perception and causal attribution, as well as the socio-communication model of the «spiral of silence». &lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;It is established that the success of the serial and political show in the election campaign is due to a number of factors: the presence of social expectations in society, a paradigm shift, social cognitive dissonance. It is found out that with the help of the TV serial the image of V. Zelensky as a successful and democratic president was formed in the voters’ minds, as well as the idea of a majority opinion was artificially created. With the help of a political show in which V. Zelensky acted as president and other political figures, the audience was convinced that his election victory was irreversible. He has become a well-known person among the population thanks to the popular serials and films that are broadcast on the television channel, which is the leader among the population in ratings and trust. This data confirms the long-term impact of television and impact of media linked to political parties on the election results. The results of the article can be used in planning political campaigns and in further studies of the influence of the media on voter behavior.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Key words:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;em&gt; applied communication technologies, elections, media, television, political technologies, media psychology.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

The influence of the age of dementia onset on college students\u2019 stigmatic attributions towards a person with dementia

BackgroundResearch in the area of public stigma and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is limited to examining stigmatic beliefs towards persons aged 65 and over (i.e., persons with late-onset dementia). The aim of the present study was to compare college students’ stigmatic attributions towards an older and a younger person with AD, using an attributional model of stigma.MethodA cross-sectional study was conducted with 375 college students (mean age = 25.5, 58.9% female, 64.3% Jewish) who answered a computerized, self-administered, structured questionnaire after being presented with one of two randomly distributed vignettes varying in the age of the person with AD – 80 or 50 years of age. Cognitive, emotional and behavioral attributions of stigma were assessed using an adapted version of the Attribution Questionnaire. Other variables examined included background information, experiences and concerns about developing AD. T-tests and Ordinary Least Square (OLS) hierarchical regressions were used to analyze results.ResultsSimilar to previous studies, students’ levels of dementia stigma were low to moderate. Negative attributions were consistently and significantly higher (β = .17 to .33, p < .01), and positive attributions were significantly lower (β = −.26, p < .01) when the target person was younger rather than older.ConclusionThe differences in stigmatic beliefs towards a younger and older person with AD point to the theoretical and practical importance of clearly stating the age of the target person in stigma studies as well as in programs aimed at reducing public stigma towards persons with AD.