Cognitive Appraisal Theory Research Articles

What Determines Customer Willingness to Travel in Automated Driving Vehicles? The Perspective of Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Emotions

What Determines Customer Willingness to Travel in Automated Driving Vehicles? The Perspective of Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Emotions

Customer Cognitive Appraisals of Differential and Dynamic Pricing

This study examines the mechanisms of cognitive appraisal theory in the context of dynamic pricing. The aim is to investigate the differences in cognitive appraisals by comparing dynamic pricing and simpler forms of price differentiation, as well as differences in appraisals between goods and services. The reactions examined in one qualitative and one quantitative study are the customers’ feelings of being exploited, price complexity perceptions, and intentions to spread online word-of-mouth (eWOM). The qualitative results indicate that customers are less aware of dynamic pricing for goods than services and that there is a strong feeling of being exploited, which can lead to negative word-of-mouth. The quantitative results support these findings as customers react more negatively to dynamic pricing than to simpler forms of differential pricing. For goods, intentions to spread eWOM are mainly driven by feelings of being exploited, while for services, the main effect runs through price complexity perceptions.

Procrastinate at work, sleep badly at night: How job autonomy matters

AbstractDespite the well‐documented deleterious effects of poor sleep quality on procrastination, limited efforts have been devoted to examining whether procrastination can hurt sleep quality. To address this theoretical gap, this study aims to reveal how and when individuals' procrastination at work influences their subsequent sleep quality. Building upon cognitive appraisal theory, the current research employs experience‐sampling methodology to investigate mediators of rumination (as a cognitive pathway) and negative affect (as an affective pathway), explaining within‐person fluctuations in sleep quality resulting from daily procrastination. Furthermore, job autonomy is proposed to be a cross‐level moderator in the relationship between daily procrastination and rumination/negative affect. The results of 2026 daily data records from 213 employees across 10 consecutive workdays supported the mediation effect of rumination and moderation effects of job autonomy but did not support the mediation effect of negative affect. Specifically, daily procrastination was negatively related to subsequent sleep quality through the cognitive pathway of rumination. Our results also reveal that the positive relationships between daily procrastination and rumination/negative affect were stronger for employees with higher levels of job autonomy. Finally, we discuss the implications and limitations of this paper as well as future directions.

Between- and within-person consequences of daily entrepreneurial stressors on discrete emotions in entrepreneurs: The moderating role of personality.

This study builds and tests a model that explains entrepreneurs' emotional responses to events in their work lives while specifying the role of entrepreneurs' personality in moderating such responses. Drawing on the cognitive appraisal theory, we hypothesise that daily entrepreneurial stressors (workload and financial) exert negative influences on two discrete emotions (fear and pride) and that entrepreneurs' neuroticism and dispositional optimism can moderate the proposed relationships. We examined daily diary data of 61 entrepreneurs over a two-week period and found multilevel evidence of individual differences in entrepreneurs' emotional responses to these stressors at both the between- and within-person levels of analysis. We also found that neuroticism and optimism partially account for the examined relationships across both levels. This study contributes to the literature on stress-related emotional experiences in an entrepreneurial context by taking into account the type of stressor and the temporal framework across levels of analysis.

Social media marketing, shoppers' store love and loyalty

PurposeThis study investigates the impact of social media marketing activities (SMMA) on shoppers' store love and the impact of store love on store loyalty in grocery retail. Moreover, it explores the mediating and moderating role of store love and social media usage intensity (SMUI).Design/methodology/approachA survey was conducted among grocery shoppers and social media users in Norway. A total of 177 valid responses were collected and analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM).FindingsThe study discovered that SMMA impacts store love, and store love affects store loyalty. Store love serves as a mediator between SMMA and store loyalty. SMUI positively moderates the relationship between SMMA and store love; however, the relationship between store love and store loyalty is not moderated by SMUI.Research limitations/implicationsDespite having limited generalizability from a cross-sectional study, this study provides literary additions to the body of knowledge in grocery retail and enhances the cognitive appraisal theory (CAT) and the attachment theory (AT).Practical implicationsThe findings of this study will help grocery shoppers, store managers and grocery chain marketers to comprehend the role of SMMA in building emotional attachment with a grocery store and help make better decisions.Originality/valueFor the first time, this study incorporated SMUI as a moderator in the relationship between SMMA, store love and store loyalty in grocery retail. The study also proposes a new explanation for the relationship between SMMA and store loyalty by highlighting the mediating role of store love.

Customer response to pro-customer deviance behavior: A theoretical model based on moral emotion

<p id=p00005>The acts of pro-customer deviance (PCD), which occurs in the service encounters where employees consciously deviate from the formal regulations of enterprises to help customers or safeguard the interests of customers have been widely observed. However, barely no divergent results were found on the impact of PCD on the customers response. Therefore, utilizing the Stimulus-Organism-Response paradigm and taking dual moral attributes of PCD (e.g., altruistic motivation, deviation from the norms of organization) as the logical origin, this study develops a model examining the relationship among PCD, customer moral emotions and re-patronage intention. Specifically, according to the Cognitive Appraisal Theory, this study explores customers moral cognitive evaluation of PCD as well as their complex moral emotional response to PCD. Moreover, based on the Differential Emotions Theory, this study examines the interaction effect among different types of moral emotions, the mediating effect of moral emotions on the relationship between PCD and re-patronage intention, and the moderating effect of customers attribution of responsibility and service context on the PCD-moral emotions-re-patronage intention linkage. The present study not only provides new theoretical insights into PCD and moral emotions, but also offers valuable practical implications for service enterprises to take advantage of the positive effect of PCD.

The Impact of Evaluation and Recollection on Smoke-free Hotel Accommodation Experience

Objectives: It is shown by studies prior that smoke-free hotel accommodation destinations should have the edge over their rivals via offering impressive and unforgettable value to consumers. There is an increasing number of customers who hope to enjoy experiential service when traveling. Studies are scant in investigating the extent to which the experiential value has an impact on positive behavioral intention in customers’ cognitive appraisals. This paper, therefore, applied the cognitive appraisal theory (CAT) and script theory to explore the determining factors of customers’ affective responses and the impact of these enticed affections on recollection and consequent behavior. Results of this research elucidate the influence exerted by the experiential value of "pleasure" on behavior. This paper also contributes to the practical implication, helping marketers through an explicit direction for triggering positive emotions of tourists.

The impact of climate change on birder destination loyalty: examining changes in bird resources

ABSTRACT Climate change has had a considerable impact on bird activities; however, it remains unclear how birders perceive the effects of climate change and whether their perceptions affect their loyalty to birding destinations. Based on the cognitive appraisal theory of emotions, this study constructs a destination loyalty model driven by the perception that bird resources have changed and place attachment of birders. We collected 252 valid questionnaires at five well-known birding destinations in China, including Baihualing in Yunnan, Nonggang in Guangxi, Chengdu in Sichuan, and Guangzhou and Shenzhen in Guangdong to test the proposed model. The study indicated four important findings. First, when climate change caused significant changes in bird migration time as perceived by birders, their loyalty to birding destinations was significantly reduced. Second, when mediated by place attachment, changes in bird migration time, population and distribution/habitat had negative impacts on loyalty to birding destinations. Third, the change in bird departure time had the greatest impact on birding destination loyalty. Finally, the change in bird distribution/habitat in a city had the greatest impact on place attachment than changes in migration time and population of birds. Specific theoretical and practical implications are provided.

Motivation, emotion and world heritage status in discerning the heritage tourists: A segmentation perspective

Heritage tourists' motives are heterogeneous but few studies examine the relationship between these motives, emotions felt after the visit, and tourists' perceptions of the attributes that contribute to World Heritage Status (WHS) listing of a site. Using cognitive appraisal theory (CAT) as the theoretical lens, we evaluate the relationship between motivation, emotion and site characteristics. Based on a sample of 1531 international visitors to Petra, we segment their motives and emotions and profile these with respect to perceptions of the attributes for WHS listing. The results show the existence of two motivation clusters “General Tourists” and “Heritage Tourists”, with the latter being drawn to Petra for reasons related to both site characteristics and heritage. Three clusters of emotions were identified namely, “Positive Arousals”, “Low Arousals” and “Mixed Arousals”. Significant relationships were identified between the motivation and emotion clusters and their respective perceptions of the attributes for WHS listing. A logit model confirmed that the emotion felt by the different clusters can be predicted by motivation clusters, demographic and travel characteristics. Implications for theory and practice are offered.

BASIC EMOTIONS IN THE 2008 US PRESIDENTIAL DEBATES: WHAT AND HOW

The present study investigates the basic emotions in the 2008 US Presidential Debates. Basic emotions refer to the emotional state or the strong feeling that is revealed through word use. In the presidential debates, each candidate conveyed ideas, information, and criticisms, and they also proposed a number of programs in the debates. In the delivery of the ideas, emotions accompany the speakers’ opinions. The emotions of the candidates were depicted in the words used. Such emotions can be a reflection of personal, group, and/or societal emotions as a result of an evaluation of social phenomena, situations, and conditions faced by people in society. Data used in this study were taken from three transcripts of the presidential debates between Democratic candidate Barrack Obama and his Republican opponent John McCain. All data were classified in terms of literal and non-literal expressions and analyzed comprehensively by using cognitive appraisal theory and other related theories that can be expanded in terms of basic emotion framework, function, value, and politeness framework. From the data analysis, the various emotions were verbalized through literal words or using vocabulary for emotion, figurative languages such as metaphor, personification, and irony/sarcasm; repetition of the same words, phrases, clauses/lexical bundles; and rhetorical questions. These words show how the expression of emotions reflects the function and values. This study is useful for improving communication skills to construct a polite, dynamic, and colorful speech.

Behind the masks: A cross-sectional study on intolerance of uncertainty, perceived vulnerability to disease and psychological flexibility in relation to state anxiety and wellbeing during the COVID-19 pandemic

Early findings suggest the COVID-19 pandemic and related containment measures negatively impact mental wellbeing. This study compared the contribution and relations of three factors to anxiety and wellbeing during the pandemic in June 2020. These factors were: i) Contextual factors (e.g. exposure to COVID-19, being a keyworker, feeling lonely); ii) Cognitive appraisals: perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) and intolerance of uncertainty (IU); and iii) psychological flexibility (PF). 603 participants aged 18 or older completed an online survey of self-report measures. Hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated PVD, IU and PF predicted state anxiety, and IU and PF predicted mental wellbeing. Some, but not all of the contextual factors also predicted state anxiety and wellbeing. The findings support cognitive appraisal theories and the PF model, lending support to an acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) approach to public health during pandemics.

Office relocation: changes in privacy fit, satisfaction and fatigue

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an office move (and associated changes in settings, protocols and autonomy) on changes in privacy fit, privacy-related coping appraisal as well as changes in satisfaction and fatigue. The study builds on Altman’s (1975) privacy regulation model and the cognitive appraisal theory as a transactional model of stress.Design/methodology/approachData was collected over two points of measurement from 61 office workers who moved from a standard open-plan office to an office that is activity based. The first questionnaire was distributed six weeks prior to the office move and the follow-up questionnaire approximately eight months after. With its longitudinal design, this study extends past research by demonstrating the changing nature of privacy fit and revealing predictors of change in privacy fit and coping appraisal.FindingsCross-lagged autoregression analysis of change confirmed suggested predictors such as increase in variety of settings and in adherence of others to protocols that positively influenced post-move privacy fit. Further, change in coping appraisal post move was predicted by an increase in perceived environmental and behavioural flexibility. Changes in privacy fit and appraisal were associated with increases in job and workplace satisfaction and decreases in emotional and mental work fatigue post move.Originality/valueResults could inform physical workplace design as well as cultural interventions in organisations. To the best of authors’ knowledge, this is the first study investigating the psychological process of privacy experience by using a transactional model of stress.

Suffering Job Insecurity: Will the Employees Take the Proactive Behavior or Not?

Job insecurity is considered an important antecedent of an employee’s creativity. Though, the relationship between job insecurity and proactive behavior has been neglected in previous human resources management studies. The aim of this study is to explore the influence of job insecurity on employees’ proactive behavior and its mechanism. Based on the social cognitive theory and cognitive appraisal theory, two types of cognitive appraisal of employee’s job insecurity (hindrance vs. challenge) as mediator variables of job insecurity and proactive behavior association. In addition, the moderator roles of self-efficacy are examined. This study is carried out with 257 employees from Chinese firms to examine the hypothesized moderated mediation model by using the hierarchical regression analysis and the bootstrap. The results showed a different effect of job insecurity depending on its conceptualization. The results show that job insecurity has a negative effect on employees’ proactive behavior. At the same time, cognitive appraisal of employees’ job insecurity mediated the association between job insecurity and employee’s proactive behavior. Self-efficacy not only moderates the relationship between job insecurity and cognitive appraisal but also moderate the cognitive appraisal’s mediation effect between job insecurity and proactive behavior. The study’s theoretical and practical contributions and future research are discussed.

The formation of fear of failure and its influence on entrepreneurial behavior

<p id="p00005">Entrepreneurship is an emotional journey that is companied with fear of failure. Fear of failure can be both an enemy and a friend. It has a dark side of discouraging entrepreneurs from carrying out entrepreneurial activities, and a bright side of motivating them to move forward. Despite mounting research on entrepreneurs' fear of failure, most studies focus on its inhibitory effect on entrepreneurial entry. Few studies pay attention to the facilitating role of fear of failure and how does it influence the key behaviors in the whole process of entrepreneurship. Based on the research gap, the study focuses on the following three research questions. (1) What induces entrepreneurs' fear of failure? (2) How does fear of failure affect entrepreneurial behavior? (3) What are the boundary conditions of fear of failure on entrepreneurial behavior? Following the core logic of Affective Events Theory, the study constructs the theoretical framework of 'entrepreneurial event * entrepreneur -- fear of failure -- entrepreneurial behavior', and tries to explore this complex concept together with the insights from practice. <p id="p00005">This study aims to achieve four research goals. First, we explore the dimensions and contents of fear of failure in entrepreneurship context. From Cognitive Appraisal Theory, fear of failure is an emotional state results from the appraisal of the threats and possibility of failure in a specific situation. We thus capture this concept from two dimensions: sources of threats and ways of appraisal. <p id="p00005">Second, we investigate the different antecedents of fear of failure and explore how does it evolve in the process of entrepreneurship. According to the assumption of Classical Stress Theory, emotion is shaped simultaneously by the objective event and individuals’ subjective interpretation. We thus focus on two important factors to address the antecedents, i.e. entrepreneurial events such as loss-relevant event and low-capability-relevant event, and characteristics of entrepreneurs, such as entrepreneurs’ passion and ways of regulatory focus. In terms of entrepreneurial events, we propose that loss-relevant event and low-capability-relevant event positively affect fear of failure. In terms of entrepreneurs’ characteristics, we propose obsessive passion and prevention focus induce fear of failure, while harmonious passion and promotion focus inhibit fear of failure. <p id="p00005">Last but not least, we clarify how fear of failure relates to key entrepreneurial behavior. Existing studies had insufficient attention on the functional role of fear of failure. Endeavoring to start filling in this gap, this paper expounds three different effects of fear of failure on entrepreneurial behavior: incentive, inhibition and repression, looking at both the bright side and dark side of fear of failure. We further disentangle the boundary conditions of the relationship between fear of failure and entrepreneurial behaviors. In the micro level, when entrepreneurs get emotional support, the incentive effect of fear of failure on entrepreneurial behavior would be reinforced. When entrepreneurs get functional support, the inhibition and repression effect of fear of failure on entrepreneurial behavior would be mitigated. In the macro level, when the institutional environment is friendly and the cultural environment is more failure tolerant, the incentive effect of failure fear on entrepreneurial behavior will be increased and the inhibitory effect of failure fear on entrepreneurial behavior will be reduced. <p id="p00005">This study contributes to an emerging strand of literature on “entrepreneurial fear of failure” by looking deeply into the dimensions of this concept. It also offers novel perspective to understand entrepreneurial behavior and entrepreneurial psychology by taking account into the functional role of fear of failure. The present research not only expands the application scope and applicable situation of fear of failure, but also enriches the Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Emotion, Affective Events Theory and Classical Stress Theory. It also tries to shed light on practice by accumulating knowledge on entrepreneurial education and offer suggestions for policy makers on managing entrepreneurial failure.

Wish-making during the COVID-19 pandemic enhances positive appraisals and job satisfaction

Guided by cognitive appraisal theory, we argue that wish-making is a conceptually distinct type of coping strategy and that wish-making during the COVID-19 pandemic has functional cognitive–affective consequences. Specifically, it facilitates positive appraisals of the pandemic, which then facilitate job satisfaction. Enhanced job satisfaction in turn reduces counterproductive work behavior during the pandemic. These arguments were tested via two empirical studies involving 546 Hong Kong employees surveyed on two consecutive working days during the pandemic. The individuals who made wishes during the pandemic reported more positive appraisals of the pandemic, which in turn promoted their job satisfaction and lowered their counterproductive work behavior. Crucially, wish-making had significant effects on positive appraisals above and beyond other coping strategies. Thus, we contribute to the employee coping literature by highlighting one relatively easy way for employees to combat the psychological effects of the pandemic (and other challenges in life) and regulate their affective well-being and behaviors at work. Namely, making wishes that envision a better future can enhance employees' job satisfaction, which in turn lowers counterproductive work behavior.

Coworkers' Support and Resistance Behaviors to Proactive Change Behaviors

Drawing on cognitive appraisal theory and theorizing from the organizational change literature, this paper examine the mechanisms of coworker support and resistance behaviors in response to proactive change events. It is hypothesized that coworkers who perceive proactive work behaviors as harmful tend to resist, those who perceive such behaviors as beneficial tend to support. Additionally, individual need for change and supervisor support for proactive behaviors are important boundary conditions: when coworkers believe they need a change event alike, they perceive an event as being related to their goals, thereby strengthening their appraisals as either beneficial or harmful. When a supervisor supports a proactive event, coworkers believe it more likely to occur, thereby strengthening their appraisal of the event. Finally, coworkers' participation in decision-making about proactive events moderates their active or passive support and resistance behaviors. When they have the opportunity for participation, they feel more control over the course of action and engage more in resistance or support behavior. Employing an online-survey method incorporated with a critical incident technique, this paper tested the hypothesized model from a sample of 390 participants and presents the theoretical and practical implications of the research.

Challenge or Threat? Exploring the Dual Effects of Temporal Social Comparison on Employee behaviors

The extant literature has indicated that comparison with high-performers could lead to negative emotions and behaviors among colleagues (including superior). In contrast, other research also suggested that this comparison can effectively motivate low-performance employees to work hard. However, social comparison theory points out that besides social comparison with others, individuals also compare with their past selves in the temporal dimension, that is, temporal comparison. Therefore, in this study, we apply the temporal dimension of the social comparison to explore the impact of an actor’s temporal social comparison with a target (whose performance development in the past period is better than the actor’s) on the actor’s psychological state and behavior. A scenario experiment and a three-wave field study show that the performance temporal social comparison can lead to social undermining in the workplace (leveling-down) and effectively promote the actor’s self-improvement(leveling-up) simultaneously. Based on the cognitive appraisal theory of stress, we have further tested the challenge-hindrance stresses' significant mediating effects. We further find that general self-efficacy (GSE) is an essential individual characteristic that affects the actor’s pressure perceptions. The effect on challenge stress will be more substantial when the actor’s GSE is higher, whereas hindrance stress will be more substantial when GSE is lower. Meanwhile, GSE is also moderating the indirect effects of performance temporal social comparison on different behaviors. Overall, our findings make significant contributions to social comparisons theory development and provide critical managerial implications for high-potential talent management.

Employees’ challenge-hindrance appraisals toward STARA awareness and competitive productivity: a micro-level case

PurposeThis study aims to examine the effect of restaurant employees’ challenge-hindrance appraisals toward smart technology, artificial intelligence, robotics and algorithms (STARA) awareness on individual competitive productivity (ICP) and explore the mediating roles of employees’ work engagement and organizational commitment on the relationship between challenge-hindrance appraisals and ICP.Design/methodology/approachData were collected through an online survey. One hundred and ninety employees who worked at full-time and non-management positions in the USA quick-service restaurants participated. Partial least squares structural equation modeling was used for the data analysis.FindingsThe study identified that restaurant employees’ challenge appraisals toward STARA awareness positively influenced ICP. This relationship is positively mediated by employees’ work engagement.Practical implicationsThis study makes practical contributions to human resource practices in restaurants. Employees’ challenge appraisals toward STARA awareness transmit the job insecurity stressor to a higher level of ICP. Restaurant managers should provide employees with adequate resources and support for non-management employees’ professional competency growth. Quick-service restaurants can enjoy a competitive advantage in the market by enhancing employees’ CP.Originality/valueThis study enriches the literature on the CP model, cognitive appraisal theory and person-environment fit theory. The study investigated employees’ challenge and hindrance appraisals toward emerging STARA awareness and emphasized their distinct characteristics to drive ICP in the quick-service restaurant sector.

Define to Defeat: Perceptions of Sexual Harassment. Subtitle: If we only define “Sexual Harassment” in the way we have until now, we will never be able to defeat it.

Although hostility against tourists has gained a respectable amount of research attention over the last two decades, tourist harassment has proved to be an elusive topic for researchers. This study makes an important contribution to the literature by demonstrating the multidimensional nature of tourist harassment, with attention paid to the application of cognitive appraisal theory. We argue the need for an in-depth understanding of victims' perspective of tourist harassment. The study involved 19 on-site interviews conducted in Ghana. The results show that tourists are subjected to aggressive and passive forms of harassment. The qualitative inquiry revealed that harassment has substantial effects on tourists' cognitive assessment, emotional response, coping strategy, destination image, and future intentions. Expressing annoyance and making behavioral adjustments were the more notable emotional and coping responses recorded. Although respondents were generally confident about recommending Ghana as a destination in spite of the harassment, they were divided in terms of their intentions to revisit the destination.

A Time-Lag Study on Perceived Threat of COVID-19 in Hindu Religious Community: Moderating Role of Hindu Religious Coping

The COVID-19 pandemic had a serious impact on developing various psychological stressors in society. Grounded in cognitive appraisal theory, the current study has been conducted to investigate the moderating role of Hindu religious coping in mitigating the impact of the perceived threat of COVID-19 in developing perceived stress, insomnia, anxiety, and depression among the Hindu residents in Bali, Indonesia. The current study contributed to the body of knowledge regarding religious practices acting as a coping mechanism to help the community cope with crises scenario such as COVID-19. Using a longitudinal field survey, data were collected at two different times from 423 Hinduism believers who actively practiced religion and lived in Bali, Indonesia. Data were analyzed using measurement and structural models in SmartPLS. Results revealed that the perceived threat of COVID-19 impacted a higher level of stress, insomnia, anxiety, and depression among the target sample. Results further depicted that the intensity of the perceived threat of COVID-19 to develop negative stressors among those individuals is low who believe in Hinduism and practice religious obligations on a regular basis. This reflects the moderating role of Hindu religious coping in decreasing stress, insomnia, anxiety, and depression among Hindu believers aimed at COVID-19.