Coffee-growing Regions Research Articles

Climate and Coffee Production in Ethiopia: A Review

Climate is a complex system involving the atmosphere, land surface, snow and ice, oceans, and other water bodies. It is measured by variations in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particles, and other meteorological variables over a 30-year period. Climate change has gained momentum due to anthropogenic disturbances, which may negatively impact human health and the biosphere. The complex relationships between humans, microbes, and the biosphere are causing an increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs), causing global warming and other cascade effects. Climate change is a key environmental concern, posing challenges to ecosystems, food security, water resources, and economic stability. Historical climate records and projected patterns across global regions have confirmed this, with Ethiopia experiencing significant increases in annual mean temperature, hot days, and nights. Climate variability refers to the Spatio-temporal fluctuation of climatic conditions, focusing on the variability dimensions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has declared climate change a key environmental concern. Climate in Ethiopia is characterized by significant geographic variance in rainfall and temperature data. The country has three seasons: bega (dry season) from October to January, belg (short rain season) from February to May, and kiremt (long rainy season) from June to September. The country's climate is influenced by the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone and its varied geography, affecting landforms, natural landscapes, and local people's living situations. Coffee is susceptible to drought, over-wetting, and wind damage because its production and quality are largely dependent on temperature and rainfall levels. In key coffee-growing regions around the world, the yield of coffee is at risk due to climate change and unpredictability. The production of coffee is expected to be severely impacted by high temperatures and unpredictable rainfall patterns in terms of yield, quality, pests, and illnesses.

Respuesta de la roya (Hemileia vastatrix) frente a condiciones climáticas y aplicaciones de fungicidas en el cultivo de café (Coffea arabica) bajo sombra

Coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix) was first reported in 1869 on a plantation on the island of Sri Lanka, Asia, and has since spread to all coffee-growing regions far from its center of origin. The coexistence between the coffee plant, primarily Coffea arabica, and the fungus Hemileia vastatrix leads to coevolution, which manifests in significant genetic variability in the plant’s resistance to the disease and the fungus’s virulence towards the plant (Avelino and Rivas, 2013). The trophic relationships between the fungus and the host are influenced by soil moisture, fruit load, genetic resistance, precipitation, relative humidity, and temperature; these are the main factors affecting plant colonization (Filho and Astorga, 2015). In this study, the behavior of H. vastatrix was recorded through sampling to describe the relationship between disease incidence and environmental conditions, such as precipitation, temperature, and relative humidity, over an 18-month period at the Santa Lucía Experimental Farm (FESL) in Heredia, Costa Rica. The main findings demonstrated that the use of triazole fungicides and copper hydroxide can maintain disease incidence below 7%, despite contributions to its development from precipitation and increased temperatures, but not from increased relative humidity. Proper management of coffee leaf rust and the presence of shade can help reduce the incidence of the disease in the coffee plantation at FESL.

Infestation Rate of the Coffee Berry Borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in South India

The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei, is a monophagous insect pest that poses a major threat to coffee production worldwide, causing yield losses of up to 30-50%. India's coffee heartland in the south, responsible for over 90% of the national output, grapples with the threat of CBB infestations. Despite its economic importance and global spread, research on the ecology of CBB in India's traditional coffee-growing regions still needs to be completed. In this study, we investigated the infestation rate of CBB in Coffea arabica and C. canephora plantations at three designated locations at Chikkamagaluru (Karnataka), Thandigudi (Tamil Nadu) and Chundale (Kerala) from south India and samplings was done once a month during three fruiting periods between 2015 and 2018. The three sampled sites showed variable percentages of infestation rates across the sampling period between 4.61±0.73 and 29.60±2.28, with the lowest and highest infestation rates in Thandigudi and Chikkamagaluru, respectively. The increase in CBB infestation towards harvest and variations in pre-brood, brood, and post-brood populations suggest the influence of different stages of fresh coffee berries, favorable agro-climatic conditions, and gaps in management strategies in the three sampled regions.

Forest loss and habitat changes reduce hummingbird functional diversity and the specialization of their interactions with plants in the tropical Andes

The expansion of agricultural landscapes is one of the main drivers of biodiversity loss around the world; the environmental gradients resulting from these landscape changes, however, allow an assessment of how biodiversity responds to environmental change. Functional diversity and mutualistic interactions between plants and animals represent an important aspect of biodiversity. In particular, the interactions between hummingbirds and plants stand out for their morphological specialization. Here, we evaluated how changes in landscape attributes affect the functional diversity and hummingbird-plant interaction networks in the coffee-growing region of the Colombian Andes. We described the functional diversity of hummingbirds and their interaction networks with plants in circular plots with a diameter of 50 m located in forests and coffee agroecosystems distributed along a landscape transformation gradient. We found that network specialization in forests is positively related to forest coverage of the landscape, while the relationship with landscape diversity and heterogeneity was weak. In contrast, we found no relationship between landscape variables and network specialization in coffee agroecosystems where the networks are less specialized and less modular compared to forests. A structural equation model (SEM) showed that hummingbird functional diversity had a significant relationship to landscape structure, while the specialization of hummingbird-plant networks was mainly affected by the amount of forest in the landscape. Although no significant direct relationship was found between hummingbird functional diversity and network specialization, SEMs show that, when considering a mediating role of functional diversity, the specialization R2 coefficient increased. Based on our results, we suggest that changes in the diversity and structure of ecological networks were a consequence of the impacts of human intervention on landscapes and natural habitats.

Quality of Arabica coffee grown in Brazilian Savannah and impact of potassium sources

Located in Brazil’s Central Plateau, the Cerrado Savannah is an emerging coffee-growing region with significant potential for the national coffee market. This study investigated the impact of potassium fertilization on Arabica coffee quality in the Cerrado, using three potassium sources (K2SO4, KCl, and KNO3) and five cultivars (Arara, Aranãs, IPR103, Catiguá and Topázio) across two consecutive harvests. We focused on productivity, granulometry, chemical composition, and sensory characteristics. No significant difference in productivity across the cultivars studied or potassium sources as isolated factors were observed. Regarding chemical parameters, potassium sources only affected NO3− and SO42− levels in the grains. Cultivar-specific differences were noted in caffeine (CAF), citric acid (CA), and sucrose (SUC), highlighting a strong genetic influence. K2SO4 improved productivity in Arara (15 %) and IPR103 (11 %), while KNO3 reduced flat grain percentage to 70 % in Catiguá. Sensory evaluation showed that all potassium sources and cultivars produced specialty coffees, with the Arara cultivar treated with K2SO4 achieving the highest SCA score (83.3) while IPR 103 treated with KCl scored the lowest at 78. Only three treatments were below but very close to the threshold (80). Multivariate analysis indicated a trend where specific treatments correlated with higher productivity and quality. Despite the subtle differences in productivity and quality among potassium sources, a cost-benefit analysis may favor KCl due to its affordability, suggesting its viability as a potassium fertilization option in coffee cultivation. Future research is needed to confirm these trends and optimize potassium source selection to enhance coffee quality in the Cerrado.

Conserving biodiversity in coffee agroecosystems: Insights from a herpetofauna study in the Colombian Andes with sustainable management proposal

Amphibians and reptiles are important indicators of ecosystem health, yet their populations are declining worldwide due to habitat loss and climate change. Agroecosystems, such as coffee plantations, can provide important habitat for these species. We conducted field surveys in the Sumapaz region of Colombia to identify the habitat structural variables that influence the diversity and abundance of herpetofauna in coffee crops. The canonical correspondence analysis revealed that abundance of leaf litter, leaf litter moisture, shade percentage, plantation area, and plantation age category were the most important variables for determining herpetofauna diversity. Our findings suggest that shaded coffee plantations can sustain herpetofauna diversity, and maintaining a thick layer of leaf litter is critical for establishing complex and structured animal communities. This study proposes a set of sustainable agricultural management principles to promote the existence of amphibians and reptiles in coffee crops. By adopting these practices, it is possible to prevent the decline in the population of amphibians and reptiles due to the expansion of the agricultural frontier, as seen in other coffee-growing regions. The findings of this study contribute to a better understanding of how to balance agricultural production and biodiversity conservation in the context of agroecosystems.

Linking Women Farmer Perceptions and Knowledge of Soil Health to Climate-Smart Coffee Cropping Management

Coffee cropping is very sensitive to global warming, thus affecting coffee growers, particularly women farmers and their economies. As unpredictable weather continues to limit the suitability of the majority of traditional coffee-growing regions, women farmers are applying climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices as a means of climate change mitigation and adaptation through healthy soil identification. Healthy soil is an important indicator that determines the sustainability of coffee cropping under CSA practices. This study determined women farmers’ knowledge of soil health indicators and perspectives on CSA practices in the coffee cropping region of Sumatra, Indonesia. The qualitative analysis based on the interviews and focus group discussions from 90 women farmers revealed that the most common soil health indicators were soil color and soil organic matter, while the least common was soil ecology. The best climate-smart coffee cropping practices were from the agroforestry system and the least were observed in the long-term conventional tillage system. Over 80% of women farmers express a strong belief in the effectiveness of soil health indicators for implementing successful climate-smart farming methods. The majority of the women recognized the importance of the use of cover crops and strategies to prevent soil erosion. Knowledge about the benefits of soil amendments and intercropping was limited. Women farmers need to have more opportunities for training on various aspects in soil management as a mechanism for climate change adaptation as well as to improve their land for the sustainability of coffee production and their resilience in coffee farming. In order for the farm communities to make the full transition to CSA practices, the success factors and benefits of this management must be demonstrated to the coffee farmers.

Non-linear regression models in the management of accumulated production of parchment coffee in Peru

Parchment coffee results from washing the coffee cherry, and its production has achieved a significant increase in the coffee-growing regions of Peru. Knowing the production pattern of this grain is essential to help coffee producers make decisions in the economic and social sector. As growth curves generally have sigmoidal behavior, which is well fit by non-linear models, this study aimed to model the cumulative production pattern of parchment coffee as a function of time (in months) in the year 2022, comparing the fit of the non-linear Logistic, Gompertz and von Bertalanffy models. The cumulative national production, and production of the departments of Huánuco and San Martín, in Peru, were analyzed. Data used to fit the models were obtained from the Ministry of Development and Irrigation (MIDAGRI) of Peru. To check the assumptions of normality, homoscedasticity, and independence of residuals, the Shapiro-Wilk, Breusch-Pagan, and Durbin-Watson tests were used, respectively. The model parameters were estimated using the least squares method using the Gauss-Newton algorithm in the R software. The goodness-of-fit of the models was tested using goodness-of-fit measures such as Coefficient of Determination (R2), Residual Standard Deviation (RSD), Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), and nonlinearity measures. Based on the models’ goodness-of-fit measures, the Gompertz model with a first-order autoregressive error term (AR1) fit best to national production data, and the Logistic model was the most suitable for describing the production of the departments of Huánuco, and San Martín.

Colombian coffee (Coffea arabica L.) plantations: a taxonomic and functional survey of soil fungi

Fungi are essential players in the maintenance of global coffee productivity, but their taxonomic and functional diversity in tropical and subtropical soils of Latin America remains largely unexplored. To address this concern, soil fungi were surveyed in six farms in three traditional coffee-growing regions of Colombia (Cauca, Magdalena, and Risaralda). Five farms were organic and newly established (<1 to 15 years) with low shade, and one farm was under long-term conventional management (>30 years old) with higher shade cover. We used amplicon sequencing and functional prediction based on the FUNGuild annotation tool. Fungal community composition diverged among farms, with Mortierella (Mortierellomycota) and Saitozyma (Basidiomycota) among the most prevalent genera. Functional prediction revealed the predominance of saprotroph-symbiotroph and pathotroph fungi. The endophyte and litter decomposer Mortierella genus was dominant within the saprotrophs and symbiotrophs. The pathotroph community was characterized by insect pathogen species belonging to the Metarhizium (Ascomycota) genus. Indeed, M. anisopliae and M. marquandii were identified as indicator species in the conventional long-term shaded farm. This study revealed that coffee plantations studied sustain a diverse fungal community and nurture potentially beneficial species. Further studies are needed to elucidate how particular management practices can nourish beneficial fungi, suppress detrimental species, and promote more sustainable coffee production.

The effect of an altitudinal gradient on the abundance and phenology of the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) (ferreri) (Coleoptera: scolytidae) in the Colombia Andes

Globally, the coffee berry borer (CBB) Hypothenemus hampei (Ferreri) is the most severe pest of the commercial coffee species arabica coffee (Coffea arabica). Heterogenous landscapes characterize many coffee-growing areas. We studied the phenology of coffee and the abundance, and development of infestation by CBB within the context an altitudinal gradient in the coffee-growing region of Caldas, Colombia. This was between 1200 m and 1800 m (a.s.l.) from September 2019 to July 2020 covering two seasons of coffee flowering. Coffee berry phenology did not differ over the altitudinal gradient studied, but CBB abundance and berry infestation differed in quantity and timings, with lower altitudes having higher abundances and proportions of infestation than higher altitudes. In the context of CBB management, October through to December is vital for coffee farms <1500 m as CBB abundance and infestation both spike, and March to June is key for farms between 1500-1700 m for the same reasons. In conclusion, coffee farmers in highly heterogeneous landscapes will have to adjust their CBB management according to the altitude gradients of their farm.

First report of Hibiscus soymovirus in Hibiscus rosa-sinensis in Colombia in mixed infection.

Hibiscus is native to southeast Asia but well suited to Colombia's arid soil and dry climates from the coast to the mountains of Bogotá. Viruses infecting hibiscus in Colombia are largely unexplored, with four viruses previously known: hibiscus chlorotic ringspot virus (HCRSV), hibiscus latent Fort Pierce virus (HLFPV), hibiscus latent Singapore virus (HLSV), and citrus leprosis virus C2 (CiLV-C2) (Padmanabhan et al., 2023). Mixed infections between these viruses were frequently detected. A recent virome analysis of a single hibiscus plant from Colombia revealed multiple viruses in mixed infection; : HCRSV, HLFPV, passion fruit green spot virus (PFGSV), a strain of physalis vein necrosis nepovirus, four novel carlavirus, one new potexvirus and a mitovirus. In addition, few smaller contigs of blunervirus and soymovirus were also identified in the high throughput sequencing (HTS) data, but their presence in the mixed infection could not be validated (A. Roy et al. 2023unpublish data). During Brevipalpus-transmitted virus (BTV) surveys, two asymptomatic and 15 hibiscus foliar samples showing green ringspots with central chlorotic spots in senescing areas, mosaic, and black or chlorotic spots were collected from six departments (states) in three geographical regions of Colombia: Tolima (n=4) and Cauca Valley (n=2) (Andean region), Meta (n=6) and Casanare (n=1) (Orinoquia region), and Quindío (n=1) and Risaralda (n=1) (coffee growing region). About 100 mg of 17 hibiscus leaf samples were separately processed for RNA isolation without DNase I treatment and tested for known BTVs, and for newly discovered hibiscus soymovirus (HSV; genus Soymovirus family Caulimoviridae) using PCR assays (Padmanabhan et al. 2023, Wang et al. 2023). To identify potential HSV infection in the samples, published SVF1/SVR1 and newly designed primer pairs (HSV-REP-F/-R and HSV-CPG-F/-R) were used to amplify the 430 nt transactivation (ORF-VI), 631 nt replicase (REP) and 401 nt coat protein gene (CPG), respectively (Supplementary 1). Of 17 samples tested, three from Tolima and one each from Meta and Quindío yielded all three expected size amplicons. Bi-directional sequencing followed by BLASTn analysis revealed 95-98% nt identity with the CPG, REP, and ORF-VI genes of HSV (OP757659). Ribo-depleted libraries were prepared using the RNA extracts of five HSV PCR positive samples. HTS yielded 11.6 to 50.3 million raw reads per sample library. Adapters were trimmed and filtered from the raw reads with Trimmomatic v0.39 and then assembled using SPAdes v3.15.5 (Padmanabhan et al., 2023). Contigs were blasted against the Arabidopsis proteome and a RefSeq-based viral protein database. Potential viral sequences were then blasted against the complete NCBI nr database. Assembled soymo contigs covered 99-100% of the HSV genome, with per-nucleotide read depths of 23.8 to 393. Contigs from the Tolima (Accessions; OR621030- OR621032 and Quindío samples (OR621033) covered 99-100% of the HSV genome and had >96-98% nt identity to Hawaiian isolate (OP757659) whereas the Meta sample contigs covered 78% of the genome with 9495% nt identity. HTS contigs shared >98-99% nt identities with their PCR amplicons. Along with HSV, other virus sequences (HCRSV, HLFPV, PFGSV, CiLV-C2, and mycoviruses) were variously detected from all five libraries. Due to mixed infection no symptom similarity was noticed among these 5 samples. The findings in hibiscus in Tolima, Meta and Quindío represent the first confirmed report of HSV infection in hibiscus in Colombia. The widespread distribution suggests the possibility of HSV dispersion via movement of planting material, and potential further spread to another hibiscus growing region.

In Vitro Biological Activity of Beauveria bassiana, Beauveria peruviensis, and Metarhizium sp. against Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Coffee (Coffea arabica) is the main commodity in Peru and is the economic support for thousands of small farmers. However, coffee production is affected by the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei). Currently, H. hampei is the most important pest in whole coffee-growing regions in Peru. This study aimed to evaluate in vitro biological activity of Beauveria bassiana, Beauveria peruviensis, and Metarhizium sp. against Hypothenemus hampei in two trials at different times. Conidia production, Conidia viability, and pathogenicity against H. hampei were evaluated at three concentrations (1 × 105, 1 × 107, and 1 × 109 conidia/mL−1). In addition, lethal times (LT50 and LT90) and lethal concentrations (LC50 and LC90) were calculated. There were significant differences in conidia production ( P &lt; 0.001) and conidia viability ( P &lt; 0.041). The highest conidia production and conidia viability were reached by B. bassiana and B. peruviensis, respectively. Likewise, there were differences in the pathogenicity of the strains in the two tests carried out (test 1: P &lt; 0.0009 and test 2: P &lt; 0.0001). The highest mortality occurred in the treatments of B. bassiana 1 × 109 conidia/mL−1, B. bassiana 1 × 107 conidia/mL−1, and B. peruviensis 1 × 109 conidia/mL−1. The treatments with lower LT50 and LT90 were B. bassiana 1 × 109 conidia/mL−1 and B. peruviensis 1 × 109 conidia/mL−1, and the strains with the lowest LC50 and LC90 were B. peruviensis and B. bassiana. The in vitro characteristics shown by B. bassiana and B. peruviensis conditions suggest they should be evaluated in the field to determine the capability of these strains to reduce populations of H. hampei.

Analysis of Caffeine and Antioxidant Content of Ethiopian Coffee Varieties from Different Growing Areas

Quality coffee consumption is increasing nowadays; however, quality can only be achieved through appropriate cultivation and processing techniques. The study is aimed at using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and spectrophotometric techniques for evaluating different coffee varieties grown in Ethiopia based on caffeine, antioxidant, and polyphenol content. Despite coming from various coffee-growing regions, all of the tested coffee varieties (heirloom, forest coffee, heirloom 2, bourbon, mixed heirloom, and catuai) underwent wet processing. The data revealed that the caffeine content ranged from 0.14 to 0.37 mg/g, total antioxidant content from 63.75 to 78.05 mg AAE/g, and total polyphenol content from 27.08 to 31.04 mg GAE/g in the selected varieties. The findings show that the amount of the identified compounds is significantly ( p ≤ 0.05 ) influenced by the variety type, growing area, and processing (intensity of roasting). The different coffee varieties were also tested for sensory quality, and the findings suggest that the typical coffee drinker prefers fruity flavors in their coffee, along with medium acidity and roasting intensity levels. The cultivation and processing technologies used in coffee production have a significant impact on the quality and sensory enjoyment of coffee.

Effects of Land Cover and Land Use Change on Nature’s Contributions to People of the Shade-Grown Coffee Agroecosystem: An Analysis of Cumbres de Huicicila, Nayarit, Mexico

The shade-grown coffee agroecosystem is rich in ecosystem services (ES). In recent years, pests and the decrease in coffee prices have caused producers to change their agricultural activities. These changes in land use have resulted in alterations in the vegetation cover that lead to the loss of ES. The objective of this research was to analyze the effects of land cover and land use changes on the ES associated with coffee production in Cumbres de Huicicila, a coffee-growing region in western Mexico. For this purpose, we analyzed land cover and land use maps for the period 2007–2019, calculated the annual rate of change and estimated the future rate of change to 2030. We used a literature review through the SALSA method to identify and estimate the impact of the ES of coffee plantations under the approach of nature’s contributions to people. As a result, we found alterations with a decreasing trend in agroecosystem cover and loss of ES related to biodiversity. We hope that this research will serve to consolidate efforts for the conservation and sustainable use of the ES of the shade-grown coffee plantations.

Costo de las incapacidades por trastornos mentales y del comportamiento en Colombia, 2016-2018

AimTo determine the costs of temporary disability due to mental and behavioral disorders for the period 2016–2018 in Colombia. MethodsDescriptive-correlational observational cross-sectional study, using the totality of disability records of contributors to the Colombian General System of Social Security in Health between 2016 and 2018, reported according to ICD-10 as mental and behavioral disorders (F00–F99) and provided by the Ministry of Health and Social Protection. ResultsThe highest number of incapacities corresponds to anxiety disorders and depressive episode with a participation of more than 20% each. The average per disability was 2.68 days, with schizophrenia (4.09), bipolar affective disorder (3.48) and recurrent depressive disorder (3.23) generating the highest number of disabilities. The average daily cost for each incapacity was $27,178; and for each patient, taking into account the average number of days of incapacity, the cost rises to $411,278 per person. ConclusionsWomen most frequently presented some type of illness and the greatest number of records occurred in the central-eastern area and coffee-growing region of Colombia; it was established that anxiety and depressive disorders are the most common and, finally, the analysis indicated that people with salaries of less than 2 SMLMV were more disabled than those with higher salaries.

Temperature contributes to host specialization of coffee wilt disease (Fusarium xylarioides) on arabica and robusta coffee crops

Coffee wilt disease, caused by the fungus Fusarium xylarioides, is a vascular wilt disease that has affected coffee production in sub-Saharan Africa over the past century. Today, the disease has two host-specific populations specialising on arabica and robusta coffee crops, which grow at high and low altitude, respectively. Here we test whether adaptation to different temperatures contributes to specialisation of the fungi on each crop. Firstly, climate models show that the severity of the arabica and robusta populations of coffee wilt disease correlates with temperature. The robusta population shows higher peak severity than the arabica population overall, but the latter has greater cold tolerance. Secondly, growth assays of thermal performance of fungal strains in vitro show that, while robusta strains grow faster than arabicas at intermediate temperatures, the arabica strains have higher sporulation and spore germination rates at temperatures below 15ºC. The match between environmental patterns of severity in nature with thermal performance of fungal cultures in the laboratory supports a role for temperature adaptation in specialisation on arabica and robusta coffee. Extrapolating our temperature-models to future climate change predicts that disease severity could decline on average due to increased temperature but could increase in some coffee-growing regions.

Risky Business: Modeling the Future of Jamaica’s Coffee Production in a Changing Climate

Jamaica produces one of the most expensive coffees on the global market. The local specialty coffee industry plays a significant role in the island’s economy and also contributes to the livelihood of smallholders—the majority of whom operate the industry’s coffee farms. While climate model projections suggest that Jamaica will continue to experience a warming and drying trend, no study has assessed the future impacts of changing climatic patterns on local coffee-growing areas. This research developed a number of geospatial processing models within the ArcMap software platform to model current coffee suitability and future crop suitability across three Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5) and three future time periods (2021–2040, 2041–2060, and 2081–2100). The results validated current locations of coffee production and revealed that there was an observable decrease in coffee suitability across the island, across all SSP scenarios and time periods under study. Most growing regions were projected to experience declines in production suitability of at least 10%, with the most severe changes occurring in non-Blue Mountain regions under the SSP5-8.5 scenario. Implications of this projected suitability change range from decreased production volumes, increased price volatility, and disruption to market operations and livelihood incomes. The paper’s findings offer stakeholders within Jamaica’s coffee industry the opportunity to develop targeted adaptation planning initiatives, and point to the need for concrete decisions concerning future investment pathways for the industry. It also provides insight into other tropical coffee-growing regions around the world that are facing the challenges associated with climate change.

Trends in Area, Production, and Productivity of Coffee in Chikkamagaluru District of Karnataka, India

Coffee is a significant commodity crop worldwide, and Karnataka, an Indian state with coffee-growing regions such as Chikkamagaluru, Kodagu, and Hassan, is a major producer. Chikkamagaluru, also known as the Coffee Land of Karnataka, is the primary location for Arabica coffee production and cultivation of various other spice crops such as areca nut, pepper, cardamom, vanilla, lime, clove, and cinnamon. Despite the importance of coffee production, coffee growers encounter multiple challenges in cultivating and yielding high-quality coffee. Therefore, researchers have explored issues associated with coffee production and yield and suggested feasible solutions. To make informed decisions, it is essential to analyze the productivity and production of the coffee-growing region. This study used 25 years of coffee time series data obtained from the Coffee Board of India, Bengaluru, from 1995-1996 to 2019-2020, to investigate the coffee-growing region's problems. The data was analyzed using linear (linear, cubic) and nonlinear (exponential, logistic, and Gompertz) growth models. The results showed that the cubic model provided the best fit for the Chikkamagaluru district's coffee-growing region. Meanwhile, the linear and Gompertz models were the best fit for coffee output and productivity, respectively. The study revealed a decrease in Chikkamagaluru coffee productivity over the study period, despite an increase in the coffee-growing area.

Factors associated with condom use among sex workers of venezuelan origin in ColombiaFatores associados ao uso de preservativo em profissionais do sexo de origem venezuelana na Colômbia

To describe the factors that determine condom use in Venezuelan immigrant sex workers in Colombia. A qualitative study was conducted with an interpretive hermeneutic approach, using semi-structured interviews developed in the Metropolitan Area of Aburrá Valley, Bogotá, and the Colombian coffee-growing region. Fifty-five interviews were conducted. Of the total number of people interviewed, 60% were cisgender men, 31% were cisgender women, and 9% were transgender women. The average age of the participants was 27 years. Sixty-nine percent were irregular migrants in Colombia. Only 11% were affiliated with the health system. It was observed that condom use is inconsistent among sex workers, depending on personal and social factors. The factors that influence condom use in sex workers of Venezuelan origin in Colombia are determined by various factors, both personal and social. Personal factors relate to knowledge, support networks, and risk perception, while social factors are associated with substance use, stigma and discrimination, and the places where sex work is done. Social factors are the ones that most influence inconsistent condom use in cisgender men and transgender women.

Direction of trade of Indian arabica coffee

Coffee (Coffea) is one of the most valuable commercial crops and the second most traded agricultural commodity on a global scale. Around 100.55 lakh MT of coffee will be consumed worldwide in 2019–20. South America, Asia, Africa, and Central America were identified as major coffee-growing regions, comprising of countries Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, Honduras, Ethiopia, India, Uganda, Peru, and Mexico. While Brazil and Vietnam contribute 50 per cent of the world’s coffee, India stands at 7th position in terms of production and exporting 2,61,374 GBE (Green Bean Equivalent - Quantity In MT) of coffee to the world, worth of Rs. 4131.82 crores during 2019-20 and contributes 2.5 per cent to the nation’s primary sector export earnings. Markov Chain analysis helps to understand the export pattern of Indian arabica coffee. Italy, Belgium, Germany, U.S.A, Switzerland, United Kingdom, France, Australia, Russian Federation and some other countries are the major importers of Indian arabica coffee. The only consistent importer of Indian arabica coffee was Italy. Despite having many major importers, India was unable to maintain a consistent share of the global market. Because of increased competition, arabica coffee’s export share has been declining. One of the major reasons for this decline was tough competition from Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, Honduras, and Ethiopia. This shows that there is a need to frame policies in favor of increased coffee marketing to gain the competitive advantage in the global coffee market.