Coffee Cooperatives Research Articles

Influence of Process Innovation on the Performance of Coffee Cooperatives in Kenya

Purpose: The purpose of this paper was to assess the influence of process innovation on the performance of coffee cooperatives in Kenya.
 Methodology: A descriptive research design was applied. The target population was 525 coffee cooperative societies in Kenya registered with the Commissioner for Cooperatives and licensed by AFFA (Coffee Directorate) as at 30th of October 2016. The sample size was 227 respondents which was arrive at using stratified random sampling technique. Structured questionnaires were used to collect primary data. Descriptive statistic such as means scores and standard deviation and inferential statistics such regressions were used.
 Findings: The study found that there was a positive relationship between process innovation and the performance of the coffee cooperatives (β=0.591, p=0.027). This implied that an improvement in the aspects related to process through which the firm operates relatively multiplies the performance outcomes of cooperatives in a positive manner. Investing in process innovation was found to have the largest and most significant effect compared to investing in organization, marketing and product innovations.
 Recommendation: The study recommends that for prioritization purposes, coffee societies should prioritize investing in process innovations compared to other innovations, especially if there a limited budget. Policy makers should ensure a favorable environment for process innovations.

Influence of Organizational Innovation on the Performance of Coffee Cooperatives in Kenya

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to assess the influence of organizational innovation on the performance of coffee cooperatives in Kenya.
 Methodology: A descriptive research design was applied. The target population of this study was 525 coffee cooperative societies in Kenya registered with the Commissioner for Cooperatives and licensed by AFFA (Coffee Directorate) as at 30th of October 2016. The sample size was 227 respondents. Structured questionnaires were used to collect primary data from the selected respondents.
 Findings: The results revealed that organizational innovation and performance are positively and significantly related (β=0.75, p=0.007).
 Unique Contributions to Theory, policy and practice: The study recommended firms to adopt new technologies for cultivation of organizational innovations. They need to be proactive in their research and development departments by incorporating technological advancements in order to maximize the potential that is in innovation strategies. Restructuring of the internal organization is necessary given a firm that requires efficiency and effective processes for better performance. The results of this study will contribute new knowledge which will provide the government and other stakeholders with better ways of managing co-operatives and improving their production.

INFLUENCE OF PRODUCT INNOVATION ON THE PERFORMANCE OF COFFEE COOPERATIVES IN KENYA

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to assess the influence of product innovation on the performance of coffee cooperatives in Kenya.
 Methodology: A descriptive research design was applied. The target population of this study was 525 coffee cooperative societies in Kenya registered with the Commissioner for Cooperatives and licensed by AFFA (Coffee Directorate) as at 30th of October 2016. The sample size was 227 respondents. Structured questionnaires were used to collect primary data from the selected respondents.
 Findings: The results of the study revealed that product innovation and performance are positively and significantly related (β=0.631, p=0.002). This indicated that developments of new products are essential for the improvement of the coffee cooperatives’ performance.
 Unique Contribution to Theory, Policy and Practice: The study recommended adoption of technology for the development of new services, new functions, and formation of new alliances. The study further recommended an organization to employ and develop a high technology for its product in order to determine strategic position to adopt the differentiation position or the cost leadership position. This study is recommended as it will benefit scholars and researchers who will gain insight on the influence of product innovation on performance of coffee co-operatives hence use it as a source of reference for other researches. The results of this study will contribute new knowledge which will provide the government and other stakeholders with better ways of managing co-operatives and improving their production.

Influence of marketing innovation on the performance of coffee cooperatives in Kenya

The purpose of the study was to assess the influence of marketing innovation on the performance of coffee cooperatives in Kenya. A descriptive research design was applied. The target population of this study was 525 coffee cooperative societies in Kenya registered with the Commissioner for Cooperatives and licensed by AFFA (Coffee Directorate) as of 30th of October 2016. The sample size was 227 respondents. Structured questionnaires were used to collect primary data from the selected respondents. The results revealed that marketing innovation and performance are positive and significantly related (?=0.674, p=0.001). This implied that significant changes in product design and packaging led to a positive change in the performance of coffee cooperatives. The study affirms that to improve performance by targeting the customers, constant improvements in how the company promotes its new products to capture the attention of new customers is a key aspect to be considered. The study recommends the management employ skills in developing clear operating procedures to run the business successfully, coordinate different areas of the business to achieve results and the ability and design jobs to suit staff capabilities and interests.

Toward Food Sovereignty: Transformative Agroecology and Participatory Action Research With Coffee Smallholder Cooperatives in Mexico and Nicaragua

The challenges that coffee smallholder livelihoods face suggest the need to move beyond incremental changes in production. Transformative agroecology offers a potential approach to guide systemic change to achieve food sovereignty among coffee smallholders and cooperatives. This work aims to understand the extent to which diversification practices among coffee smallholders can contribute to a transformative agroecology, and to what extent, participatory action research (PAR) projects may support related transformative processes. The PAR projects described in this paper took place over 3 years with participants associated with two smallholder cooperatives in Mexico, and Nicaragua. After establishing long-term partnerships among cooperatives and universities, we used a PAR approach to guide a mixed methods study that included 338 household surveys, 96 interviews, 44 focus group discussions, and participant observation during farmer-to-farmers exchanges. We found that, although coffee-producing households in both study sites report several diversification activities, more than 50% still face some period of food scarcity each year. In our reflections with farmers and staff from the participating cooperatives, that are also included as co-authors in this study, we conclude that coffee smallholders and cooperatives in both locations are in the early stages of developing a transformative agroecology, as a path toward food sovereignty. Several leverage points to achieve this include land access, native seed conservation, cultural attachment to certain diversification practices, and traditional diets. Some of the more significant challenges to advancing a more transformative agroecology are the prioritization of coffee as a crop (i.e., coffee specialization), and dependency on coffee income. Our PAR project also aimed to contribute to achieving change in the prevailing system through 1) capacity building with community facilitators/promoters, 2) co-creation of questions and knowledge relevant to the strategic planning by coffee cooperatives, 3) sharing farmer-to-farmer pedagogies across territories, and 4) the co-production of popular education material. We conclude that diversification remains an important agroecological strategy for smallholder commodity producers, as a way of achieving food sovereignty. Most of all, we find that achieving diversification is not a linear process, as there are many trade-offs, feedback loops, obstacles and opportunities that should be considered through long-term and collective approaches.

Do Certification Schemes Enhance Coffee Yields and Household Income? Lessons Learned Across Continents

While the market for sustainably certified products grows, the debate on whether smallholder farmers benefit from this certification movement is far from over. We present empirical findings across three continents. Identical household surveys were conducted among 738 smallholder coffee farmers organized in primary cooperatives in Ethiopia, India and Nicaragua. The comparative analysis which is based on the propensity score matching approach shows that the impacts of Fairtrade certification on coffee yields and income vary across countries. In Ethiopia, the coffee farmers from Fairtrade certified cooperatives fare worse than their non-certified counterparts both in coffee yield and income. In the Indian case study, the Fairtrade cooperative members have yield and price advantages over the non-certified farmers. This has in turn led to higher net revenue from coffee for certified farmers. In Nicaragua, coffee farmers from Fairtrade and double (Fairtrade-Organic) certified cooperatives also benefit in terms of net revenue but there is no statistically significant effect on yield and household income. A comparison of the Fairtrade minimum floor price and the weight-equivalent Fairtrade cooperative price in the three countries shows that Nicaraguan Fairtrade certified farmers have obtained a higher average price than the Fairtrade mandated minimum price, whereas in Ethiopia the certified farmers received a much lower price. In India, the certified average price was closer to the minimum floor price. We conclude that coffee cooperatives and the motivation and capability of their staff play a central role in training their member farmers about each aspect of coffee growing and certification.

Coffee Value Chain in Ethiopia: A Case Study

Coffee is a bulging commercial crop ever growing up in Ethiopia to export for gaining comparative advantageous of price and income. It also plays a pivotal role to supporting livelihoods of most of the people particularly poor within the territory of the country. It is obvious that the farmers are facing numerous problems encountered with coffee value chain for marketing of their products in marketing channel. The main objective of this research is to analyzing the factors influencing coffee cooperatives effectiveness in coffee value chain of Ilubabor Zone in Oromia Region of Ethiopia. Research is carried out with methodology of data analysis based on descriptive statistics and econometrics model. A logistic regression method is used to analysis the effectiveness of coffee cooperatives in coffee value chain and multi -collinearity regression analysis is employed to determine the correlation between explanatory variables. It is found that despite of inactiveness of cooperatives the coffee value chain is playing an important role to facilitating marketing of coffee in Ethiopia. The research is an important perspective to measuring emerging problems associated with value chain and its solutions with valuable recommendations.

Improving inclusion, competitiveness, and sustainability in midstream Honduran coffee chains

This article presents a systematic comparison between conventional and ‘differentiated’ coffee value chains, paying attention to (micro and macro) economic performance and environmental outcomes at different midstream segments of the Honduran coffee value chains. Growth has been strong in the Honduran coffee sector, especially among coffee cooperatives and commercial enterprises devoted to the production of ‘differentiated’ coffees at premium prices. We rely on a systematic data inventory of input use, costs, and benefits of all agents involved at different midstream stages of the coffee value chains to compare their performance. We find that midstream integration is critical for yield and quality improvement of Honduran coffee. This can be reinforced through voluntary certification (mainly for organic produce) and branding. Moreover, upgrading of conventional coffee for sales at local and regional markets offers some promising prospects for inclusion and sustainability.

MAPPING VALUE ADDED ARABICA COFFEE PROCESSED PRODUCTS IN ACEH TENGAH

Coffee is one of the plantation commodities that has an important role in foreign trade. In 1712, Indonesian coffee plantations were traded for the first time to the Netherlands (KP Gayo, 2016). Aceh coffee, which is better known internationally is the type of Gayo Arabica coffee because it has a distinctive aroma and taste. This research uses descriptive quantitative research methods. This research was conducted in Aceh Tengah. This is because Aceh Tengah is one of the main production Aceh Tengah. The objects of this research are the trade office, the agriculture office, coffee expert staff, Gayo arabica coffee farmers and the four green been coffee agroindustry and coffee grounds which have the largest export quotas in Bener Meriah Regency, namely KBQ Baburrayyan, Oro Coffee Cooperative, and PT Olam Coffee. The data collection method used is in-depth interviews with several key persons belonging to the research object. The results showed that the output value obtained from pumpkin coffee products was Rp. 27,176 per Kg with an added value of Rp. 22,176 per Kg. The output value obtained from green bean products is Rp. 56,950/Kg with an added value of Rp. 13,050/Kg. The output value obtained from the Gayo Arabica coffee powder product is Rp. 123.500/Kg with an added value of Rp. 36.500/Kg. 176 per Kg with an added value of Rp. 22,176 per Kg. The output value obtained from green bean products is Rp. 56,950/Kg with an added value of Rp. 13,050/Kg. The output value obtained from the Gayo Arabica coffee powder product is Rp. 123.500/Kg with an added value of Rp. 36.500/Kg. 176 per Kg with an added value of Rp. 22,176 per Kg. The output value obtained from green bean products is Rp. 56,950/Kg with an added value of Rp. 13,050/Kg. The output value obtained from the Gayo Arabica coffee powder product is Rp. 123.500/Kg with an added value of Rp. 36.500/Kg.

Review on Status of Organic Farming

Organic agriculture started much more recently in thousands of years ago, Agriculture almost equal share of the farming systems of crop production and characterizes the key issues of Ethiopian economy. The quality of organic resources and their fertilizer equivalence are the main criteria to be judged for effective utilization of the organic resources for soil fertility improvement and promotion of agricultural products both in quantity and quality.Organic agriculture is production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. The evaluation of organic matter in soils depends on type and nature of organic source. Organic agriculture in the extent to which African farmers certified yields (more than 50% higher than local yield averages). The export main products produced are cotton, sesame and coffee, followed by cocoa, dried fruits, frozen fruit/pulp, fresh mainly tropical fruit and spices. Ethiopia is famous as the origin of coffee and is the largest producer in Africa. Forest coffee has the advantage that it originates from an organic and shaded production area - a quality increasingly important for coffee drinkers worldwide coffee cultivation systems, superior quality and organic in nature. Certified-organic farmers will generally require a higher price to compensate for the costs of inspection, certification and the major source of foreign exchange and thus account more than half of the value of total export. Total number of 12 forest coffee cooperatives in remote areas of southwestern Ethiopia were certified according to Fairtrade, organic (EU standard) and Utz Certified standards. The common understanding of agricultural production in all types of organic agriculture is managing the production capacity of an agro-ecosystem. Pesticides and fertilizers are damaging human health and polluting the surrounding environment and thus violating the sustainability of ecosystem.

The potential for income improvement and biodiversity conservation via specialty coffee in Ethiopia.

The specialty coffee sector represents opportunities for coffee farmers and other actors due to increased value within the supply chain, driven by elevated consumer purchase prices. We investigated these relationships up to the export stage, as well as the potential for specialty coffee to improve stakeholder participation in biodiversity conservation. Household data was collected from a sample of 272 coffee farmers belonging to five primary cooperatives, in the heavily forested area of Yayu, in the Illubabor administrative zone of Oromia regional state in south-western Ethiopia, for the 2017/2018 harvest season. Qualitative and quantitative data, gathered between 2015 and 2019, from focus group discussions, was used to supplement the survey and to explain the empirical findings. We show that the income from coffee (and thus household income) can be increased, in some cases substantially, via participation in the specialty coffee market. The unit price for coffee was much higher than standard market prices and those including certification premiums. Whilst quality is a key factor for specialty coffee, income increases via the specialty market are caveat bound. In particular, there is a critical requirement for efficient and effective cooperative management, and we provide suggestions for improvements. In the long-term, more focus is needed to increase the financial and human capacities of Ethiopian coffee cooperatives, to make them more effective partners in the specialty coffee value chain. The high conversion rates from harvested to clean exportable specialty coffee (8:1, or higher) is identified as a major constraint on profitability. We show that specialty coffee can bring about positive environmental benefits. Elevating coffee prices and farm profitability to bring household income levels to around or above the global poverty line may ensure the continuation of forest coffee production, and thus the retention of forest. The increases in income via specialty coffee production, reported in the study, were achieved without increasing land use or the application of environmentally costly inputs. Moreover, analysis of satellite data shows that a large proportion of the coffee farms surveyed retain a level of forest cover and quality approaching primary (undisturbed) forest, and that the coffee production area at Yayu has not experienced any significant deforestation (since 2000). We recommend that coffee premiums linked to environmental benefit should demonstrate clearly defined and appropriate metrics, as we have demonstrated here for forest (canopy) quality and coverage (area).

Analysis of Institutional Factors Affecting Optimization of Coffee Yields in Chuka Sub-County, Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya

The importance of coffee production in the world economy cannot be ruled out due to its contribution in the developing countries in areas such as creation of employment and rise in foreign exchange. Most of the coffee producing countries in the world have come up with strategies to increase their quantity and improve the quality of their produce. In Kenya, the government have also come with numerous policies to support coffee production at the farm level but production of coffee in Kenya has since 1989 crop year been declining. There has been emergence of other enterprises that are profitable than coffee production such as real estate and dairy sector in most of the coffee-growing zones, but there are many farmers who have been determined to maintain coffee production. Despite the efforts made by the government to maximise coffee production in terms of quality and quantity, production has shown a downward trend, with some farmers completely doing away with production This study was aimed at assessing the factors that affect optimization of coffee production in Chuka sub-County, Tharaka-Nithi County. Proportional stratified random sampling was used to select a sample of 153 respondents from a population of 7,428 small-scale coffee farmers from ten cooperatives in the sub-County. The findings of the study indicated that access to extension, access to research and management of coffee cooperative were essential in coffee production with a mean agreement of 58.33%. The research established that access to extension (5%) and management of cooperatives (5%) were statistically significant while access to research at (5%) was statistically insignificant. Similarly, access to extension services increased optimization by 91%, poor management of coffee cooperatives reduced production by 45.1%, while access to research increased coffee production by 51%. Therefore, it is important to ensure farmers access extension services, research and there is improved management of coffee cooperatives.

VALUE ADDED AGRICULTURE: AN ANALYSIS OF ECONOMIC RELATIONS IN THE COFFEE VALUE CHAIN IN THE NORTH WEST REGION OF CAMEROON / Value Added Agriculture: An Analysis of Economic Relations in the Coffee Value Chain in the North West Region of Cameroon

This study analyses profitability with respect to value added in the coffee value chain in the North West Region of Cameroon. As objective, this study examined the economic relations at different stages of the coffee value chain. Thus, the study analysed the prices, costs, margins and profit sharing at different stages in the coffee value chain in the North West Region of Cameroon. Purposive sampling technique was used to select 40 respondents from two divisions (Mezam and Bui) who formed the study sample. Analysis employed the Cost–Return and Benefit–Cost technique to measure profitability at selected stages (coffee producers/farmers, coffee processors, coffee exporters and coffee retailers) in the value chain. Results showed that the cost of production of dry parchment, green bean, powder coffee and brewed coffee was Franc Financial Community of Africa - FCFA103,027/ha, FCFA 2,933.7/kg, FCFA 1,043.12/kg and FCFA 7,335/kg respectively with Net Profits of FCFA 15,192, CFA 1,566.3, FCFA 528.88 and FCFA 4,665 respectively. Furthermore, Benefit-Cost ratio analysis revealed that the coffee value chain is a profitable sector with Benefit-Cost values of 1.1, 1.5, 1.5 and 1.6 respectively for coffee producers/farmers, coffee processors, coffee exporters and coffee retailers. Though profitable, the study uncovered that coffee producer who apparently at the beginning of the value chain doing most of the job received the least benefit when compared with other actors. This study provided evidence that retailers were most benefited in the value chain compared to coffee producers, processors and coffee exporters. The study recommends that for a profitable coffee business within the study area, the government, coffee cooperatives and all the actors along the value chain should work in close collaboration.

Phân tích các yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến khả năng nhận biết mô hình thương mại công bằng của nông hộ trong sản xuất cà phê tại xã Xuân Trường, Tp Đà Lạt, tỉnh Lâm Đồng

Fair-trade in coffee production offers an opportunity to improve farmers’ position in the market. The research has used a multinomial logit model with the MLE method to analysis the factors affecting the awareness probability about the fair-trade model of the coffee farmers Data were collected by directly interviewing 220 farmers in Xuan Truong Commune, Da Lat City, Lam Dong Province where the fair- trade model has been applied to coffee production at the Cau Dat coffee cooperatives. The results showed that the awareness probability of farmers about the fair-trade coffee model was 21,68% while there was only 0.12% of famers knowing this but not clear. In addition, factors affecting the awareness probability in the fair-trade coffee model are educational level, experience, communication, understanding of fair-trade, and coffee cultivation; of which communication and understanding of fair-trade positively influencing the farmers' awareness.

Determinants of Coffee Market Outlet Choice by Smallholder Farmers in Seka Chokorsa District, Jimma Zone, Ethiopia

This article is intended to identify coffee market outlets, analyze marketing margins and the determinants of outlet choice by smallholder farmers in seka chokorsa district of jimma zone. Both types and sources of data were used and collected from 124 coffee producers, suppliers, cooperatives and collectors to obtain necessary data and analyzed using multinomial logit model. The survey revealed that 41.1% of smallholders sold their sundried coffee to suppliers, 33.1% reported to have sold to cooperatives and about 25.8% of them sold their coffee to collectors. Analysis of marketing margins showed that the costs incurred by producers are very high almost more than half of the overall costs relative to costs incurred by primary outlets and they obtain fewer margins only about 28 percent which is not fair and seasonable compared to costs. Hence, there is a need to intervene in this gap to increase producers’ share in the area through supplying inputs at low price which in turn reduces production costs. The results of multinomial logit model indicated that the probability of choosing cooperatives marketing outlet was affected by coffee farming experience, educational level of the household head and postharvest value addition compared to suppliers’ outlet. Similarly, the probability to choose the collector outlet is found to be significantly affected by the age of the household head, livestock in tropical livestock unit, access to coffee marketing information and access to extension service relative to suppliers’ outlet the base category. Therefore, these factors requires intervention and promotion by developing farmers’ awareness about post-harvest handling, educating and training farmers; strengthening financial and market capacity of the cooperatives would increase farmers’ choice towards cooperative outlet. Furthermore, establishing and facilitating market access, providing efficient, regular, timely and integrated extension service, improving infrastructure like communication and road to ensure farmers ability in accessing market and market information are recommended to improve farmers’ outlet choice in the study area for future policy intervention. Keywords: Coffee, Marketing margins, Outlet Choice, Smallholders, Multinomial Logit Model DOI: 10.7176/JPID/54-03 Publication date: May 31 st 2020

Examining Adopted Conflict Management Approaches On Organizational Development In Machakos Co-Operative Union

The purpose of this study was to identify the adopted conflict management approach on organizational development in coffee cooperatives. The research was conducted in Machakos Co-operative Union in the Lower Eastern part of Kenya. Descriptive research survey was used. The target population was drawn from 1500 employees of Machakos Co-operative Union who took part in the study. The sample size was 305 employees drawn from different levels of management selected through cluster sampling technique. Systematic sampling was used to give each individual a chance to be chosen. Data collection was carried out through the use of Semi-structured questionnaire and interview guide. Both qualitative and quantitative technique was used to analyse data. Quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics through content analysis and findings were analysed and presented quantitatively and qualitatively in frequency tables, graphs pie charts and percentage while qualitative data was analysed using thematic techniques and data presented in narrative forms. From the study, it was established that different conflict management approaches were employed in Machakos Coffee Cooperative, 22% of the respondents reported that accommodation strategy was used and 23% the Collaboration strategy which led to improved productivity in the organization and enhanced inter personal relations while 54% of the respondents indicated that the contending approach which was mostly used influenced conflict management in the organization. The study recommends that organizations need to embrace the strategy in order to maximize productivity and encourage retention of human resource.

A cross case synthesis of the social and economic development of three Guatemalan coffee cooperatives

Cooperatives in the international coffee sector can help build farmer capacity, increase coffee productivity, and improve farmer welfare. The purpose of this research was to examine Guatemalan coffee cooperatives to determine unique attributes, social capital perspectives, and social impacts on small holder farmers. Four perspectives on social capital and economic development were examined across cases: (a) the communitarian view, (b) the networks view, (c) the institutional view, and (d) the synergy view. The research design was mini-ethnographic case study with cross-case synthesis. The emerging themes were (a) economic impacts, (b) multiple generation farmers, (c) capacity building trainings to improve crop management, (d) use of shade trees and organic matter for soil amendments, (e) service learning/agritourism, and (f) use of microloans to enhance economic development. Based upon the exploratory cases, each community had similar and unique internal and external interactions that could be triangulated with social capital perspectives. Networks were formed between members of the co-ops (intracommunity) giving a sense of community and purpose (i.e. agritourism, service learning) and external sources (i.e. workshops/trainings and a USAID research plot). The concept of social capital perspective gives insight into an explanation of economic development.

When Fairtrade is not enough: coffee cooperative development and the role of certification systems

Coffee cooperatives employ certification systems, in part, to structure their relations with growers and buyers, and generate income for business operations and investments. In Central America, development agencies have targeted certified coffee cooperatives for support, based on the assumption that cooperatives are uniquely positioned to deliver benefits to poor coffee farmers. Research on certification systems has focused on the benefits obtained by smallholders from participation in a single system, often Fairtrade. This research examines cooperatives and how they engage with certification systems and the implications of this engagement for building their business. Data was collected in 2018 from four cooperatives in Nicaragua and Honduras. Fairtrade certification and related coffee sales formed the bedrock of their business strategy, but Fairtrade alone was insufficient to sustain operations, even when combined with organic certification, due to insufficient demand. Additional systems, such as UTZ Certified, C.A.F.E. Practices, and Rainforest Alliance were employed. These additional systems allowed cooperatives to sell excess coffee on relatively favourable terms – coffee which otherwise would have been sold as non-certified coffee. Results suggest that engagement in multiple certification systems is critical for sustaining cooperatives in the region, but they also dampen expectations that certification systems can provide a framework for driving long-term systemic change.

A participatory framework for feasibility assessments of climate change resilience strategies for smallholders: lessons from coffee cooperatives in Latin America

ABSTRACT Coffee farmers are already experiencing the impacts of climate change, yet recommended resilience strategies are often cost-prohibitive for smallholder producers and/or maladapted to local conditions and contexts. We collaborated with smallholder coffee cooperatives in Latin America to assess the feasibility of climate change resilience strategies they selected: crop diversification; rainwater collection systems; pest monitoring and management; collective coffee seed banks and nurseries; and solar coffee dryers. Data was collected through key actor and cooperative leader semi-structured interviews and focus groups with cooperative members. Our results provide criteria that can be used to determine if these five resilience strategies are appropriate for given environmental, socioeconomic, and political contexts. They also demonstrate the need for tailoring resilience strategies to fit local conditions. The framework we applied serves to select appropriate, effective and equitable resilience strategies, combining a participatory action research approach to incorporate local knowledge, capital assets analysis for a holistic and realistic understanding of feasibility, and access analysis for an assessment of who will benefit and who will not. This framework can be applied to assess the feasibility of climate change resilience strategies with smallholders in a wide variety of geographies, contexts and agroecosystems.

FROM CRISIS TO SPECIALTY COFFEE The Case of Nicaraguan Smallholder Cooperatives and Jesuit Business Education for Sustainability and Justice

Project-based service-learning has been proven to be an effective experiential learning opportunity that complements standard curricula in business schools. Seattle University (SU) has collaborated with its sister university, Universidad de Centro Americana (UCA) in Managua, Nicaragua, since 2015 on several project-based service-learning experiences focused on sustainable coffee farming practices and the implications that climate change may have on coffee farms and communities. This partnership with UCA and coffee cooperatives has its roots in the global coffee crisis of the early 2000s and has produced multiple projects that support farmers entering the specialty coffee markets. This paper as such presents the outcomes of our annual field research that took place in Penas Blancas, Nicaragua in March 2018. Using the framework of sustainable coffee in light of environmental, social, and economic sustainability objectives, we provide evidence that many farmers in Nicaragua have been experiencing issues with their farms’ sustainability. Our findings, moreover, reveal that the direct trade model used by the SU student-run social enterprise Cafe Ambiental is the most effective means of ensuring the farmers’ economic sustainability, thereby allowing them to develop the environmental sustainability of their farms as well as improve their family and community health, education, and overall livelihoods for enhanced social sustainability. This social enterprise model created by SU students takes significant steps toward fulfilling the needs and improving the lives of coffee farmers in Nicaragua while preserving the land at the same time so future generations can grow quality coffee. Finally, we believe that our project has potential that is transferable to other Jesuit higher education institutions that utilize and pursue similar structures and objectives.