Intake Of Cod Liver Oil Research Articles

Predictors of Human Milk Fatty Acids and Associations with Infant Growth in a Norwegian Birth Cohort.

Triglyceride-bound fatty acids constitute the majority of lipids in human milk and may affect infant growth. We describe the composition of fatty acids in human milk, identify predictors, and investigate associations between fatty acids and infant growth using data from the Norwegian Human Milk Study birth cohort. In a subset of participants (n = 789, 30% of cohort), oversampled for overweight and obesity, we analyzed milk concentrations of detectable fatty acids. We modelled percent composition of fatty acids in relation to maternal body mass index, pregnancy weight gain, parity, smoking, delivery mode, gestational age, fish intake, and cod liver oil intake. We assessed the relation between fatty acids and infant growth from 0 to 6 months. Of the factors tested, excess pregnancy weight gain was positively associated with monounsaturated fatty acids and inversely associated with stearic acid. Multiparity was negatively associated with monounsaturated fatty acids and n-3 fatty acids while positively associated with stearic acid. Gestational age was inversely associated with myristic acid. Medium-chain saturated fatty acids were inversely associated with infant growth, and mono-unsaturated fatty acids, particularly oleic acid, were associated with an increased odds of rapid growth. Notably, excessive maternal weight gain was associated with cis-vaccenic acid, which was further associated with a threefold increased risk of rapid infant growth (OR = 2.9, 95% CI 1.2–6.6), suggesting that monounsaturated fatty acids in milk may play a role in the intergenerational transmission of obesity.

Modern science, moral mothers, and mythical nature: a multimodal analysis of cod liver oil marketing in Sweden, 1920–1930

This paper offers the first case study of the marketing of cod liver oil in Sweden (1920–1930), following the discovery of vitamins A and D. Drawing upon a large dataset of cod liver oil advertisements from the Swedish Newspaper Archive, it uses multimodal critical discourse analysis to investigate how language and other semiotic resources (e.g. image, typography, color) work together to convey the benefits of cod liver oil intake. It identifies three overarching themes—scientific rationality, scientific motherhood, and nature—noting how advertisements were aimed squarely at mothers and struck a balance between vitamins as scientifically formulated products and mythical, natural substances to convince them that cod liver oil was necessary for their children. Exploring how cod liver oil was marketed from a historical perspective shows how nutritional research gained prominence and became of increasing importance for marketing, as well as how food, through science, became incorporated into a consumerist lifestyle. It also provides a way to deconstruct contemporary marketing practices, thereby enabling consumers to rethink products framed as indispensable for their health.

Cold-pressed minke whale oil reduces circulating LDL/VLDL-cholesterol, lipid oxidation and atherogenesis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice fed a Western-type diet for 13\xa0weeks

BackgroundLong-chain n3-polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC n3-PUFA) are well known for their anti-inflammatory activity and their impact on cardiovascular disease. Cold-pressed whale oil (CWO) has half the amount of LC n3-PUFA compared to cod liver oil (CLO). Still, there has been observed more pronounced beneficial effects on cardiovascular disease markers from intake of CWO compared to intake of CLO in human intervention studies. Extracts from CWO deprived of fatty acids have also been shown to display antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects in vitro. The aim of this study was to investigate whether intake of a high-fat Western-type diet (WD) supplemented with CWO would prevent the development of atherosclerotic lesions in apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE−/−) mice.MethodsSeventy female ApoE−/− mice were fed a WD containing 1% CWO, CLO or corn oil (CO). Atherosclerotic lesion formation, body and tissue weights, hepatic gene expression together with serum levels of LDL/VLDL-cholesterol, ox-LDL, total antioxidant status and various serum cardiovascular disease/proinflammatory markers were evaluated. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS, and Shapiro-Wilk’s test was performed to determine the distribution of the variables. Statistical difference was assessed using One-Way ANOVA with Tukeys’ post hoc test or Kruskal-Wallis test. The hepatic relative gene expression was analysed with REST 2009 (V2.0.13).ResultsMice fed CWO had less atherosclerotic lesions in the aortic arch compared to mice fed CO. Levels of LDL/VLDL-cholesterol and ox-LDL-cholesterol were also markedly reduced whereas total antioxidant levels were enhanced in mice fed CWO compared to CO-fed mice. In addition, CWO-fed mice gained less weight and several hepatic genes involved in the cholesterol metabolism were up-regulated compared to CO-fed mice.ConclusionIn the present study mice fed a WD supplemented with 1% CWO had reduced formation of atherosclerotic lesions in the aortic arch, reduced serum LDL/VLDL-cholesterol and ox-LDL-cholesterol, increased serum total antioxidant status and reduced body weight compared to mice fed a WD supplemented with 1% CO.

Determinants of Vitamin D deficiency in asymptomatic healthy young medical students.

Objective:The study aimed to determine vitamin D status and frequency of its determinants related to diet, clothing, lifestyle and exposure to sunlight among young healthy medical students living in Karachi, Pakistan.Methods:This cross sectional study included responses gathered on questionnaire from medical students of Karachi Medical &Dental College from 4th of August 2017 till 30th April 2018. All the participants were healthy young adult’s year of age who gave written informed consent to participate in the study. Questions regarding demographics, sun exposure, diet, clothing, living patterns and any symptoms like pain or body aches were recorded. Serum 25 (OH) vitamin D3, calcium and phosphorus levels were measured through laboratory examination. For serum 25OHD, the cutoff values ≤ 20ng /ml, ≥ 21-29ng /ml, and ≥ 30ng/ml were defined as deficiency, insufficiency, and sufficiency respectively.Results:Total number of medical students enrolled in the study was 221.Among total participants 191 (86.43%) were females and 30 (13.57%) were males. Mean ± SD age was almost similar (23.00 ± 2.56 vs. 23.03 ± 2.05). Majority of the females 115 (60.2%) had BMI within normal range, and were predominantly single 164 (85.9%). Vitamin D deficiency was found in 197 (89.14%), insufficiency in 16 (7.24%), and only 8 (3.62%) had sufficient levels. Determinant factors reported by deficient group (n=197); fabric color (dark mix) 87.3%, fabric material (synthetic + mix) 48.7%, full length of sleeves by 45.7%, exposure to sun only on hands and face during outdoors was reported by 64.5%, milk up to 250 cc was consumed by 77.2%, one egg per day in diet was taken by 56.9% and intake of cod liver oil was less common in only 27.4%.Conclusion:Deficiency of vitamin D is common among healthy young adults particularly females which emphasize need to add vitamin D supplements in their routine diet.

Intake of multivitamin supplements and incident asthma in Norwegian adults: the HUNT study.

Although intake of multivitamin supplements is becoming increasingly popular, the relationship between intake of multivitamin supplements and incident asthma remains unclear. Prospective studies in adults with long-term follow-up are especially scarce. Our objective was to investigate the association between intake of multivitamin supplements and asthma development in Norwegian adults.We followed 16 952 adult subjects from the second survey of the Nord-Trøndelag Health Study (1995–1997) up to 2006–2008, who, at baseline, were free of asthma and provided information on their intake of multivitamin supplements and cod liver oil. Regular intake of multivitamin supplements or cod liver oil was defined as daily intake for ≥3 months during the year prior to baseline. Incident asthma was defined as reported new-onset asthma after the 11-year follow-up.Intake of multivitamin supplements only was associated with an increased odds ratio for incident asthma (OR 1.55, 95% CI 1.12–2.13) after adjustment for a number of common confounding factors (model I). Similar odds ratios were found for intake of cod liver oil only and for intake of both supplements (1.59 and 1.73, respectively).Regular intake of multivitamin supplements was associated with an increased odds ratio for incident asthma in Norwegian adults.

Cod liver oil consumption at different periods of life and bone mineral density in old age.

Cod liver oil is a traditional source of vitamin D in Iceland, and regular intake is recommended partly for the sake of bone health. However, the association between lifelong consumption of cod liver oil and bone mineral density (BMD) in old age is unclear. The present study attempted to assess the associations between intake of cod liver oil in adolescence, midlife, and old age, and hip BMD in old age, as well as associations between cod liver oil intake in old age and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentration. Participants of the Age, Gene/Environment Susceptibility-Reykjavik Study (age 66-96 years; n 4798), reported retrospectively cod liver oil intake during adolescence and midlife, as well as the one now in old age, using a validated FFQ. BMD of femoral neck and trochanteric region was measured by volumetric quantitative computed tomography, and serum 25(OH)D concentration was measured by means of a direct, competitive chemiluminescence immunoassay. Associations were assessed using linear regression models. No significant association was seen between retrospective cod liver oil intake and hip BMD in old age. Current intake of aged men was also not associated with hip BMD, while aged women with daily intakes had z-scores on average 0.1 higher, compared with those with an intake of < once/week. Although significant, this difference is small, and its clinical relevance is questionable. Intake of aged participants was positively associated with serum 25(OH)D: individuals with intakes of < once/week, one to six time(s)/week and daily intake had concentrations of approximately 40, 50 and 60 nmol/l respectively (P for trend < 0.001).

Factors associated with vitamin D deficiency in a Norwegian population: the HUNT Study

Vitamin D deficiency occurs worldwide. Winter season and high Body Mass Index (BMI) are associated with low levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D). We estimated the prevalence of vitamin D...

Landskönnun á mataræði sex ára barna 2011-2012

Knowledge of dietary habits makes the basis for public nutrition policy. The aim of this study was to assess dietary intake of Icelandic six-year-olds. Subjects were randomly selected six-year-old children (n=162). Dietary intake was assessed by three-day-weighed food records. Food and nutrient intake was compared with the Icelandic food based dietary guidelines (FBDG) and recommended intake of vitamins and minerals. Fruit and vegetable intake was on average 275±164 g/d, and less than 20% of the subjects consumed ≥400 g/day. Fish and cod liver oil intake was in line with the FBDG among approximately 25% of subjects. Most subjects (87%) consumed at least two portions of dairy products daily. Food with relatively low nutrient density (cakes, cookies, sugar sweetened drinks, sweets and ice-cream) provided up to 25% of total energy intake. The contribution of saturated fatty acids to total energy intake was 14.1%. Less than 20% of the children consumed dietary fibers in line with recommendations, and for saturated fat and salt only 5% consumed less than the recommended upper limits. Average intake of most vitamins and minerals, apart from vitamin-D, was higher than the recommended intake. Although the vitamin and mineral density of the diet seems adequate, with the exception of vitamin-D, the contribution of low energy density food to total energy intake is high. Intake of vegetables, fruits, fish and cod liver oil is not in line with public recommendations. Strategies aiming at improving diet of young children are needed.

Fæðuvenjur og fylgni við blóðþrýsting meðal eldri Íslendinga

Prevalence of hypertension, which is the most common risk factor for cardiovascular disease in elderly people, increases with age. The aim of the study was to investigate the association between diet and blood pressure in elderly Icelanders, with focus on cod liver oil, and to compare their diet to dietary guidelines. Diet was assessed using three-day weighed food records and blood pressure was measured after a 12-hour-fast in 236, 65-91 years old, Icelanders living in the capital area of Iceland. 99 men (42%) and 137 women (58%) participated in the study. According to Nordic nutrition recommendations, intake of nutrients was above lower intake levels among the majority of participants. However, 19% were under this level for vitamin-D, 13% for iodine, 17% of men for vitamin-B6, and 26% and 12% of men and women, respectively, for iron. Systolic blood pressure was inversely associated with cod liver oil intake, even when adjusted for age, body mass index, gender, and antihypertensive medications (P=0.01). Intake of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids correlated with blood pressure in a similar way. Other dietary factors were not associated with blood pressure. The results indicate that intake of cod liver oil is associated with lower blood pressure among elderly people and may therefore have beneficial effects on health. A notable proportion of participants was at risk of vitamin D, vitamin B6, iodine, and iron deficiency.

Cod liver oil intake and incidence of asthma in Norwegian adults—the HUNT study

BackgroundCod liver oil is an important source of vitamin D, but also contains other fat-soluble components such as vitamin A. Before 1999, the cod liver oil formula in Norway contained...

Sun Exposure, Vitamin D and Age at Disease Onset in Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis

Background: Current evidence suggests that sun exposure and vitamin D intake, during childhood and adolescence, are associated with a reduced risk of multiple sclerosis (MS). However, the role of these environmental agents in the timing of disease symptom onset remains to be investigated. Methods: Using a cross-sectional study design, we recruited participants from the Veterans Health Administration – Multiple Sclerosis Surveillance Registry. Self-reported histories of residential locations, sun exposure and intake of vitamin D were used to estimate vitamin-D-related exposures. Multivariable linear regression analysis was used to examine the associations between these variables and age at MS onset. Results: Among veterans with relapsing MS who resided in low-to-medium solar radiation areas (n = 540), low sun exposure in the fall/winter during the ages of 6–15 years was significantly associated with earlier symptom onset by 2.1 years (p = 0.02). Intake of cod liver oil during the same age period was associated with later onset of MS symptoms by 4 years (p = 0.02). Conclusions: The current study provides evidence for an association between vitamin-D-related exposures during childhood and early adolescence and the timing of MS symptom onset, and supports vitamin D as a potential modulator of the clinical course of this disease.

A primary health-care intervention on pre- and postnatal risk factor behavior to prevent childhood allergy. The Prevention of Allergy among Children in Trondheim (PACT) study

BackgroundThis study aimed to evaluate the impact of a primary prevention intervention program on risk behavior for allergic diseases among children up to 2 years of age. The setting was in ordinary pre- and postnatal primary health care in Trondheim, Norway.MethodsThe Prevention of Allergy among Children in Trondheim, Norway (PACT) study invited all pregnant women and parents to children up to 2 years of age in the community to participate in a non-randomized, controlled, multiple life-style intervention study. Interventional topics was increased dietary intake of cod liver oil and oily fish for women during pregnancy and for infants during the first 2 years of life, reduced parental smoking and reduced indoor dampness. A control cohort was established prior to the intervention cohort with "follow up as usual". Questionnaires were completed in pregnancy, 6 weeks after birth and at 1 and 2 years of age. Trends in exposure and behavior are described.ResultsIntake of oily fish and cod liver oil increased statistically significantly among women and infants in the intervention cohort compared to the control cohort. There was a low postnatal smoking prevalence in both cohorts, with a trend towards a decreasing smoking prevalence in the control cohort. There was no change in indoor dampness or in behavior related to non- intervened life-style factors.ConclusionsThe dietary intervention seemed to be successful. The observed reduced smoking behavior could not be attributed to the intervention program, and the latter had no effect on indoor dampness.Trial registrations(Current Controlled Trials registration number: ISRCTN28090297)

Childhood Cod Liver Oil Consumption and Bone Mineral Density in a Population-based Cohort of Peri- and Postmenopausal Women: The Nord-Trondelag Health Study

Use of cod liver oil, which is rich in vitamins A and D, is traditionally recommended during the fall and winter months as a protective measure against vitamin D deficiency in several countries. It is not known whether childhood cod liver oil intake is related to variations in bone mineral density (BMD) or fractures in adult life. In 2001, a total of 3,052 Norway women aged 50-70 years had forearm BMD measured in a substudy of the population-based Nord-Trøndelag Health Study. Women reporting no childhood cod liver oil intake had statistically significantly higher BMD than those with any ingestion of cod liver oil. The odds ratio for low BMD (>1 standard deviation below age-specific mean) in women reporting cod liver oil intake throughout the year as compared with women with no intake was 2.3 (95% confidence interval: 1.4, 3.9), adjusted for body mass index, smoking, menopausal status, estrogen use, and current milk consumption. There were indications of a negative dose-response effect of childhood cod liver oil intake on bone. Although the vitamin A content of commercial cod liver oil was recently reduced by 75% in Norway, the past high concentration remains a possible explanation for the observed negative association between childhood cod liver oil intake and forearm BMD.

Diet and Nutrtion: Sunny Side of Cancer Prevention

Diet and Nutrtion: Sunny Side of Cancer Prevention

Associations between cod liver oil use and symptoms of depression: The Hordaland Health Study

Background Clinical trials suggest that omega-3 fatty acids improve the outcome of depression. This study aimed to evaluate the association between intake of cod liver oil, rich in omega-3 fatty acids, and high levels of symptoms of depression and anxiety in the general population. Methods We used data from the “The Hordaland Health Study ‘97–'99” (HUSK), a population based cross-sectional health survey from Norway including 21,835 subjects aged 40–49 and 70–74 years. Symptoms of depression and anxiety were measured by The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). We used logistic regression to study associations. Results Among the participants, 8.9% used cod liver oil daily. A total of 3.6% had high levels of depressive symptoms. The prevalence of such depressive symptoms among the subjects who used cod liver oil daily was 2.5%, as compared to 3.8% in the rest of the population. The users of cod liver oil were significantly less likely to have depressive symptoms than non-users after adjusting for multiple possible confounding factors (odds ratio = 0.71, 95% confidence interval 0.52 to 0.97). These factors included age, gender, smoking habits, coffee consumption, alcohol consumption, physical activity, and education. In addition, we found that the prevalence of high levels of depressive symptoms decreased with increasing duration (0–12 months) of cod liver oil use (multivariate adjusted test for trend, P = 0.04). We were only able to study this latter association in a subset of the population aged 40–46 years. Limitations Data are cross sectional. Conclusions The findings indicate that regular use of cod liver oil is negatively associated with high levels of depressive symptoms in the general population.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in the Diet and Breast Milk of Lactating Icelandic Women with Traditional Fish and Cod Liver Oil Consumption

Background/Aims: The proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the diet and breast milk of lactating women with traditional fish and cod liver oil consumption was investigated under free-living conditions. Methods: Dietary intake of 77 lactating women was investigated by 24-hour recalls and breast milk samples were taken at the same occasions. Maternal intake data was calculated and fatty acid pattern from breast milk samples analyzed with gas chromatography. Results: Women using cod liver oil (n = 18) had a significantly higher total PUFA intake (14 ± 10 vs. 9 ± 7 g/day; 5.0 ± 3.4 vs. 3.9 ± 3.0 Energy%; p < 0.05) than women who did not use it (n = 59). In particular, mothers consuming cod liver oil had higher breast milk proportion of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 0.54 vs. 0.30%, p < 0.05). They also had higher breast milk proportions of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 0.16 vs.0.07%; p < 0.05) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA; 0.22 vs. 0.17%; p < 0.05). Conclusion: The proportion of PUFA in the diet is significantly higher among women consuming cod liver oil. Its use also gives higher proportion of EPA,DPA and DHA in breast milk without decreasing other important fatty acids. As this may have an impact on the health and development of breast-fed infants in later life, regular maternal cod liver oil intake could be relevant for the infant as well as for the nutritional adequacy of the maternal diet.

Relationship between dietary intake of cod liver oil in early pregnancy and birthweight

To investigate the possible association between birth outcome and marine food and cod liver oil intake of healthy women in early (prior to 15 weeks of gestation) pregnancy. An observational study. Free-living conditions in a community with traditional fish and cod liver oil consumption. Four hundred and thirty-five healthy pregnant Icelandic women without antenatal and intrapartum complications. Dietary intake of the women was estimated with a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) covering food intake together with lifestyle factors for the previous three months. Questionnaires were filled out at between 11 and 15 weeks and between 34 and 37 weeks of gestation. The estimated intake of marine food and cod liver oil was compared with birthweight by linear and logistic regression controlling for potential confounding. Birthweight, cod liver oil intake, lifestyle factors (alcohol, smoking). Fourteen percent of the study population used liquid cod liver oil in early pregnancy. Regression analysis shows that these women gave birth to heavier babies (P < 0.001), even after adjusting for the length of gestation and other confounding. Maternal intake of liquid cod liver oil early in pregnancy was associated with a higher birthweight. Higher birthweight has been associated with a lower risk of diseases later in life and maternal cod liver oil intake might be one of the means for achieving higher birthweight.

Correction

HomeCirculationVol. 107, No. 3Correction Free AccessCorrectionPDF/EPUBAboutView PDFView EPUBSections ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload citationsTrack citationsPermissions ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyReddit Jump toFree AccessCorrectionPDF/EPUBCorrection Originally published28 Jan 2003https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000054601.17182.B0Circulation. 2003;107:512This article corrects the followingFish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular DiseaseAfter the publication of the AHA Scientific Statement “Fish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular Disease” by Kris-Etherton et al, which appeared in a previous issue of the journal (Circulation. 2002;106:2747–2757), the following errors were noted in Table 3. First, two other sources for the fatty acid composition of fish should have been included.1,2 Secondly, the footnote to “cod liver oil” should have read, “This intake of cod liver oil would provide approximately the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) of vitamin A and twice the RDA for vitamin D.” Finally, the EPA+DHA content for four fish was given incorrectly, and should have been as follows:TABLE 3. Amounts of EPA+DHA in Fish and Fish Oils and the Amount of Fish Consumption Required to Provide ≈1 g of EPA+DHA per DayFishEPA+DHA Content, g/3-oz Serving Fish (Edible Portion) or g/g OilAmount Required to Provide ≈1 g of EPA+DHA per Day, oz (Fish) or g (Oil)Sockeye salmon1.052.5 ozEastern oysters0.953 ozAtlantic cod0.1323 ozPacific cod0.2412.5 ozReferences1 Hepburn FN, Exler J, Weihrauch JL. Provisional tables on the content of omega-3 fatty acids and other fat components of selected foods. J Am Diet Assoc. 1986; 86: 788–793.Google Scholar2 Ackman RG. Nutritional composition of fats in seafoods. Prog Food Nutr Sci. 1989; 13: 161–289.Google ScholarIn the “ACC/AHA 2002 Guideline Update for the Management of Patients With Chronic Stable Angina—Summary Article: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on the Management of Patients With Chronic Stable Angina)” by Gibbons et al that appeared in the January 7/14, 2003, issue of Circulation (Circulation. 2003;107:149–158), page numbers were not included in the Guideline’s internal Table of Contents. The complete corrected Guideline follows this page. The page numbers shown are consistent with the pagination of the January 7/14 issue. Previous Back to top Next FiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsCited By Ramprasath V, Thandapilly S, Yang S, Abraham A, Jones P and Ames N (2015) Effect of consuming novel foods consisting high oleic canola oil, barley β-glucan, and DHA on cardiovascular disease risk in humans: the CONFIDENCE (Canola Oil and Fibre with DHA Enhanced) study – protocol for a randomized controlled trial, Trials, 10.1186/s13063-015-1014-5, 16:1, Online publication date: 1-Dec-2015. Related articlesFish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular DiseasePenny M. Kris-Etherton, et al. Circulation. 2002;106:2747-2757 January 28, 2003Vol 107, Issue 3 Advertisement Article InformationMetrics https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000054601.17182.B0 Originally publishedJanuary 28, 2003 PDF download Advertisement

Change in levels of persistent organic pollutants in human plasma after consumption of a traditional northern Norwegian fish dish-mølje (cod, cod liver, cod liver oil and hard roe).

The traditional northern Norwegian fish dish "mølje", consisting of boiled cod, cod liver, cod liver oil and hard roe, is still consumed frequently during the winter months January to March. The liver of the cod is rich in lipids and the levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are relatively high. To better understand the short-term consequences of this traditional meal on the plasma levels of PCBs and p,p'-DDE, individual intake of liver and cod liver oil during one meal was measured. Blood samples were collected from 33 participants before the meal, and then 4 h, 12 h and 5 days after it. Lipid-weight and wet-weight levels of 10 PCB congeners and p,p'-DDE were determined in the plasma samples and the food. The plasma levels of p,p'-DDE was found to increase significantly from 0 to 4 h, both when expressed as wet-weight (35% change) and lipid-weight (20% change). The corresponding changes (0-4 h) in wet-weight levels of the most prevalent PCB congeners were non significant. By contrast, PCB congeners with low levels in the food showed a significant drop in lipid-weight levels during the first 4 h. The observed changes were independent of amount consumed. Significant differences in fasting and non-fasting samples were found for most PCBs and p,p'-DDE. For the lipid weight levels of sum PCBs there was a significant decrease of 16% from non-fasting to fasting samples. To obtain reliable data on human levels of POPs it is, on the basis of these findings, recommended that blood samples should be collected from fasting individuals and both wet-weight and lipid-weight levels should be reported.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins in the Maternal Diet, Influence of Cod Liver Oil Supplementation and Impact of the Maternal Diet on Human Milk Composition

Background/Aims: To investigate lactating mothers’ intake of fat-soluble vitamins in free-living subjects and to what extent cod liver oil supplementation influences the maternal intake in a population with common intake of cod liver oil. The impact of maternal diet on the concentration of fat-soluble vitamins in human milk was studied. Methods: Dietary intake of 77 lactating women was investigated by 24-hour diet recalls and breast-milk samples were taken at the same occasions. Breast milk samples were analyzed for fat-soluble vitamins. Results: The median intakes were 927 µg/day for vitamin A, 5.5 mg/day for vitamin E and 3.3 µg/day for vitamin D. Maternal vitamin A, E and D intakes were higher when the diet was supplemented with cod liver oil. Icelandic breast milk was found to have high contents of vitamin A and E. Only vitamin D was too low in breast milk to meet the recommended intake for infants. Retinylpalmitate in relation to lipids correlated with maternal vitamin A intake (r = 0.23, p < 0.05). The group with cod liver oil supplementation had significantly lower levels of γ-tocopherol in breast milk (p < 0.01), whereas the supplementation did not affect other fat-soluble vitamins. Conclusion: The recommended intake of fat-soluble vitamins for lactating women can more easily be met with a cod liver oil supplementation than diet alone. Only vitamin D in human milk cannot meet the recommended intakes for infants, with normal breastfeeding. There is a relationship between the content of vitamins A and E in human milk and the maternal diet.